Learning By Classical And Operant Conditioning

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Learning

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Lasting change in behavior/mental processes that results from experiences. Ex: Unpleasant injection -> needles associated to pain. This is a evolutionary advance over instincts.

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Instincts

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Unlike learning, these rely on simple reflexes w/ little experience. Learning in humans illustrates flexibility to adapt & ability to know something expanded from innate knowledge. Ex: Language.

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Simple forms of learning

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habituation and mere-exposure effect

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Complex forms of learning

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operant conditioning and classical conditioning

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Habituation

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Simple; Learning to not respond to repeated presentation of a stimulus. Become adapted to. Ex: ignoring sound of traffic.

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Mere-exposure effect

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Simple; learned preference for stimuli to which we've been previously exposed to- whether or not stimulus is associated to pleasure or whether we are aware of stimulus. Ex: advertising, trusting, attraction to.

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Behavioral Learning

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Complex; Learning involving connection between 2 stimuli. Ex: 12 o/clock bell with lunch. Or association of actions w/ rewarding or punishing consequences. Ex: A vs. D as a grade. Forms of learning (classical & operate conditioning) that can be described in terms of stimuli and responses.

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Classical Conditioning

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Basis form of learning where a stimulus that produces an innate reflex becomes associated w/a previously neutral stimulus, which then acquires power to elicit essentially the same response.

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Ivan Pavlov’s contribution to psychology

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Happened quite by accident. Had won a noble prize for discoveries on digestive system (1849-1936), but later found that dogs were salivating even before food was in their mouths. This associated w/ objective model of learning- classical learning- that connects learned connections among stimuli and responses.

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Reflexes

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Simple, automatic responses; Pavlov focused on this at first. Ex: Salivation & eye blinking. Triggered by neutral stimuli. Connection -> <- reflex & new stimulus can be learned.

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Neutral Stimulus (NS)

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Any stimulus that produces no CR prior to learning. When paired w/a conditioned experiment, researcher calls it CS.

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Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

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A stimulus that automatically produces a reflexive response w/o conditioning. Ex: food. Brings forth UCR.

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Unconditioned Response (UCR)

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Response elicited or brought out by an UCS w/o prior learning. Ex: Salivating from food.

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The essentials of classical conditioning

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include an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), unconditioned response (UCR), conditioned stimulus (CS), and a conditioned response (CR).

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Acquisition Effect

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Initial learning stage (during conditioning) in classical conditioning, during which the CS comes to elicit the CR. Ex: Tone -> food -> salivation

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Conditioned Stimulus

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Formally neutral response, now gone through conditioning (acquisition), the CS elicits a CR after being paired w/UCS. At 1st, only weak responses are elicited.

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Conditioned Response

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Same response produced by UCS, but has now gone through conditioning & can be elicited by CS.

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Extinction

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weakening of CR (salivation) in absence of an UCS (food). neutral stimulus (tone) presented multiple times w/o UCS (food) reverses acquisition by having no effect on behavior. Learning to not respond to CS.

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Spontaneous Recovery

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Reappearance of CR w/neutral stimulus when undergone extinction. Appears at lower intensity.

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Generalization

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Extension of learned response to similar stimuli as CS. Ex: Fear of spiders result in same response to spiders of all sorts.

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Discrimination

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Exact opposite of generalization. Learned response to 1 stimuli, but not all similar stimuli. Ex: Mouth waters at sound of ice cream truck, but not to sound of doorbell.

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Experimental Neurosis

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pattern of erratic (changing) behavior resulting from a demanding discrimination learning task, usually involves distasting stimuli. Ex: Stress resulting from not understanding your homework -> F -

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Little Albert

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An infant who was conditioned to fear a white lab rat by having rat appear contiguously w/a harsh sound (UCS). After acquisition, his fear generalized to other white fuzzy objects. Features John Watson & Rosalie Rayner

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Conditioned Food Aversions

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Association of a food or drink w/pain or illness. Results in straying away from the food/drink.

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Taste-Aversion Learning

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An innate tendency in which an organism learns (after 1 experience) to avoid a food w/a certain taste if eating it is followed by illness.

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Operant Conditioning

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Form of learning in which behavior change is influenced by rewards & punishments. The consequences of behavior will elicit chance that certain behavior may occur again. Voluntary; explains new behavior.

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Difference between classical & operant conditioning

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Classical conditioning teaches involuntary reflexes whereas operant conditioning teaches voluntary responses based on result or consequence.

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Thorndike's Law of Effect

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Idea that responses that produced desirable results would be learned, or “stamped” into organism. Ex: Reward by food for hungry wolves by working together. Erroneous responses -> eliminated

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B.F. Skinner's role in operant conditioning

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This founding father eliminated all subjective matters about organism’s feelings, intentions, or goals & based it all on behavior or objective results (consequences)

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Reinforcer

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A condition (involving presentation or removal of a stimulus) that occurs after a response & strengthens or increases response. Ex: Presenting praise (reinforcer) after a child puts away his toys (response).

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Positive Reinforcement

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Stimulus presented after a response to increase likelihood of it occurring again. Ex: attention, praise, smile, food, money, sex.

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Negative Reinforcement

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Removal of an aversive stimulus to increase probability of behavior. Ex: Putting on sunscreen to avoid a sunburn. Wake up early to avoid traffic & being late. Being nice to avoid a fight. Reinforcer is the thing you're avoiding.

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Operant Chamber

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Aka “Skinner Box” is a boxlike apparatus that can be programmed to deliver reinforcers & punishers determined by animal’s behavior.

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Reinforcement contingencies

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Associated w/timing & frequency of rewards. Deals w/ many possible ways of associating responses & reinforcers. Contingency: something that may happen in the future. Relationship -> <- a response & changes in stimulations that follow response.

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Continuous Reinforcement

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Type of reinforcement schedule by which all correct response are reinforced w/reward. Best strategy. TRAIN

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Shaping

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Operant learning technique where a new behavior is produced by reinforcing responses or behaviors similar to praised response. Teaching & learning of NEW behaviors.

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Intermittent Reinforcement

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Aka partial reinforcement, step after continuous reinforcement. Once response is learned, only some correct responses are reinforced. MAINTAINS

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Schedule of reinforcement

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Programs or ways of specifying frequency & timing of reinforcements. 2 forms of intermittent reinforcement- Ratio & interval schedule.

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Ratio Schedule

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Rewards after a certain NUMBER of correct responses.

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Interval Schedule

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Program that provides reinforcement only after a certain TIME interval has elapsed since last reward.

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Fixed Ratio

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Reinforcement is given unvarying on # of correct responses produced. Ex: $1 for every 10 tires produced at work. (FR)

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Variable Ratio

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Reinforcement varies from trial to trial on # of correct responses. Ex: Telemarketers (VR)

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Fixed Interval

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Reinforcement relies on a certain time period. Response rate increases near end of interval. Ex: student working on term paper. (FI)

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Variable Interval

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Most unpredictable program influenced by varied time interval, and reinforces. Responses are typically low. Ex: Fishing trip. (VI)

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Primary Reinforcers

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Rewards ie- food or sex that have innate basis due to biological values of organism. Based upon needs or desires.

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Secondary Reinforcers

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Aka conditioned reinforcers; neutral stimuli associated w/PR. Ex: Money, smiles, grades, ect. Stimuli acquire reinforcing power through learning association w/PR.

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Token Economy

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Therapeutic method of praise by giving tokens to individuals that act as SR to redeem privileges.

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Premack Principle

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A more preferred activity (playing) can be used to reinforce a less preferred activity (homework).

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Punishment

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Similar to negative reinforcement. Is an aversive stimulus given after a faulty response in hopes that stimulus diminishes strength of response.

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Positive Punishment

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Application or use of punishment in form of aversive stimulus after response. Ex: Touching a hot plate -> pain.

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Omission Training

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Aka negative punishment [removal of aversive stimulus]. Removal of a reinforcer after a certain response to decrease strength of behavior. Ex: Taking away misbehaving teen’s car keys.

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Difference Between Positive/Negative Reinforcement/Punishment

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P/N reinforcement increases behavior. P/N punishment decreases behavior. Negative R/P removes a stimulus. Positive R/P adds a stimulus.

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punishment is difficult to use effectively...

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A.) Power of punishment to suppress behavior disappears when threat of punishment is removed. Ex: Drivers that don't follow speed limit w/no cops near. B.) Punishment triggers aggression. Naturally would try to escape punishment, but w/no escape route, behavior turns to aggression & frustration.
C.) Punishment makes learner apprehensive which inhibits learning new, better responses. Organism will feel vulnerable & hopeless. State is called learned hopelessness which may cause depression. Punishment focuses learners’ attention on their own misery & what not to do, which blocks further learning.
D.) Often applied unequally. Ex: Boys more
punished than girls.

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Wolfgang Kohler

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His experiment w/chimps showed that chimps can solve complex probs by combining simpler behaviors previously learned. Animals didn't just use conditioned responses; learned by recognizing perceptions of problems.

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Insight Learning

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Prob solving mental process that perceives familiar objects in new forms/relationships. Sudden reorganization of perception.

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Cognitive Map

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A mental representation of a familiar, physical place.

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Edward Tolman

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His work w/rats showed that learning is also mental. Rats put in a maze w/o reinforcement didn’t use trial & error method (as behaviorists would have). Instead used cognitive map of maze to get around. Discovered that organisms learn spatial layout of environments by exploring even if exploring wasn't reinforced. provocative challenge to behavioral views

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Latent Learning

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Type of learning that's invisible unless there’s an incentive behind it. Ex: Tolman’s rats that were familiar w/maze made their way around easier than rats that were just introduced to it.

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Albert Bandura

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His work w/the BoBo doll (a big balloon shaped as a clown) indicated that children imitate behaviors they see. Ex: parents hit the doll, child will more aggressively hit the doll.

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Observational Learning

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Aka social learning; extension of operant conditioning where learner learns a new response by observing behavior & consequences of another. Ex: Imitation. You also feel as though you're getting rewarded.

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Robert Rescorla

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His discovery in informativeness- crucial feature in the conditioned or learned stimulus. Its value in predicting the onset of UCS. Ex: Food aversions indicates a warning of illness w/certain food.

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Rethinking behavioral learning in cognitive terms

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Pay most attention to provided info on UCS. Ex: see smoke, but disregard it because there're more possibilities as to why there's smoke than just a fire. You smell something burning & you know it’s a fire.

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Long-Term Potentiation

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Physical changes that strengthen synapses in groups of nerve cells which are the neural basis of cognitive learning

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Eric Kandel & Robert Hawkins Discovery

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Connected behavioral learning w/cognitive learning level of brain pathways by testing theories about how simple animals rely on simple behavioral responses whereas, complex animals have a 2nd type of circuitry that facilitates higher forms of learning. Ex: Memory. This simple learning occurs slowly.