Learning And Behavior Exam 3

Front 1

Thorndike's law of effect

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behaviors leading to a satisfactory outcome are strengthened, and behaviors leading to an unsatisfactory outcome are weakened or eliminated (Ex: reaching through cage= no food, so don't do)

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puzzle box

Back 2

a tool developed by Thorndike to study the learning capabilities of cats

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operant behavior

Back 3

behaviors that are more voluntary (chosen) in nature which seem to be controlled by their consequences (contrast with elicited behaviors) ...any behavior impacted by its consequences

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*****elicited behavior*****

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to draw out,

those behaviors that are typically involuntary, AUTOMATIC,rely on a stimulus to occur (Ex: salivation, blinking, sneezing, jumping at noises...)

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skinner tried to test/observe

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learning by consequence

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skinner box/operant chamber

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a device developed by skinner that can control those environments in which an organism can operate

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operant conditioning

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teaching through consequence

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response

Back 8

any behavior exhibited by the organism

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consequence

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the result of the behavior

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discriminative stimulus (S sub D)

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some aspect of environment that impacts the way a consequence is applied (Ex: "go easy on mommy because she is frustrated/tired")

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reinforcement

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an event that follows a behavior that INCREASES the likelihood of that behavior to occur again in the future (Ex: at camp= deposits)

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punisher

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an event that follows a behavior that DECREASES the likelihood of that behavior to occur again in the future (Ex: at camp= withdrawals)

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antecedents

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what happens before

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discriminative stimulus for reinforcement

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any stimulus that signals a behavior will be reinforced

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discriminative stimulus for punishment

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any stimulus that signals a behavior will be punished

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three term contingency

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all three conditions predict the future likelihood of a performed behavior. they are: discriminative stimulus, response/behavior, and consequence (reinforcer or punisher)

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4 types of contingencies

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pos./neg. reinforcement, pos./neg. punishment

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reinforcement is like...

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math! (positive means add, negative means subtract)

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positive reinforcement

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PRESENTATION (adding) of a stimulus following a response that INCREASES the likelihood of that response in the future

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negative reinforcement

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REMOVAL (subtracting) of a stimulus following a response that INCREASES the likelihood of that response in the future

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escape behavior

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terminates an aversive stimulus (think: it is happening now, get away!)

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avoidance behavior

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prevents delivery of aversive stimulus (think: it hasn't happened yet, so I'll avoid it early)

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positive punishment

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PRESENTATION (adding) of a stimulus following a response that DECREASES the likelihood of that response in the future

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negative punishment

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REMOVAL (subtracting) of a stimulus following a response that DECREASES the likelihood of that response in the future (Ex: no TV)

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hint: if behavior is increasing then it is

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reinforcement

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hint: if behavior is decreasing then it is

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punishment

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immediate positive reinforcement

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tend to be the most effective (want to reinforce as quickly as possible)

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delayed positive reinforcement

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may result in no association between behavior and reinforcement

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primary positive reinforcement

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properties (the actual thing(s)) reinforce. these may run out. (Ex: food, alcohol, sex)

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secondary positive reinforcement

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associations reinforce. these have infinite use. (Ex: clicker-trained dogs)

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generalized secondary positive reinforcement

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associate with many other reinforcements (Ex: CA$H!)

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intrinsic positive reinforcement

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behavior is reinforced in and of itself

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extrinsic positive reinforcement

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behavior must have a rewarding consequence to be repeated. this decreases motivation (Ex: getting paid for good grades)

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shaping (AKA: neat tricks) with positive reinforcement

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a process used to teach an organism to engage in a particular behavior

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remember: you can't train away an

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instinct

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successive approximations are needed to achieve

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shaping (AKA: neat tricks)

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successive approximations complete procedure

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select behavior

break-down into tiny pieces

selectively reinforce each tiny action

(Ex: progressions for sit, lay-down, and shake)

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schedules of reinforcement

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the response requirement that must be met before reinforcement is delivered

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continuous reinforcement

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reinforcement after each separate performance of a given behavior

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intermittent reinforcement

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reinforcement following a set requirement of number of behaviors performed or amount of time passed since prior reinforcement.

not reinforcing behavior every time.

more special= more of a reaction due to depravation

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4 basic schedules of reinforcement

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fixed ratio,

variable ratio,

fixed interval,

variable interval

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ratio schedule

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set number of responses

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*****fixed ratio (FR)*****

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a set number of responses must be performed before reinforcement will be delivered. CERTAIN and PREDICTABLE.

(Ex: FR(5)= press bar 1, 2, 3, 4, 5... #5 gets reward like how Liza gets a prize for every 5 pieces of paper...

FR(1)= reward for every behavior present)

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variable ratio (VR)

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a varying unpredictable number of responses that must be made before reinforcement will be delivered (Ex: VR(5)= average number of reinforcements)... think: like fishing and slot machines.

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fixed ratio vs. variable ratio shows...

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fixed ratio= lower motivation because you know where you are going

variable ratio= more response to get most possible rewards, so more motivation

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*****fixed interval (FI)*****

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a set period of time must pass before reinforcement will be delivered; after that period has passed, the next time that behavior is performed it will be reinforced.

CUMULATIVE RESPONSE PATTERN THAT IS A REPEATED, UPWARDLY SCALLOPED PATTERN.

(Ex: FI(30 sec)= press bar, 30 sec pass, reinforcement) think: 10:45- 10:50= check clock over and over again to see if class is over

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variable interval (VI)

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a varying, unpredictable period of time must pass before reinforcement will be delivered; after that period has passed, the next time that behavior is performed it will be reinforced

(this is about the slowest rate of responding)

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response-rate schedule of reinforcement

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reinforcement of rates of responding, rather than number or time period

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differential reinforcement HIGH (DRH)

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reinforcement of HIGH rates of responding (Ex: buy a new car at close enough to the end of the month will mean it will be cheaper. the cheapest is before january)

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differential reinforcement LOW (DRL)

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reinforcement of LOW rates of responding (Ex: with autistic kids, if they make eye contact for a certain amount of time, they get a reinforcement)

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differential reinforcement PACED (DRP)

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reinforcement of a consistent rate of responding (Ex: like pacing in a race)

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non-contingent schedules of reinforcement

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schedule of reinforcement not contingent on responses

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fixed time schedule of reinforcement

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reinforcement is delivered based on time interval instead of following behavior

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fixed interval vs. fixed time difference is...

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FI= have to do behavior to get reinforcement

FT= get reinforcement after time

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variable time schedule of reinforcement

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reinforcement is delivered on an unpredictable time interval instead of following behaviors

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superstitious behavior

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strange, RANDOM behavior performed in hopes of controlling reinforcement. more prevalent in low reinforcement activities (Ex: baseball)

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chained schedule of reinforcement

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sequence of 2 or more simple schedules, each resulting in reinforcement (Ex: FR(10) --> FR(5) --> FR(1)... this is a homogenous chain)

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homogenous chain of reinforcement

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same type of response (like pecking a key) to gain reinforcement (same behavior).

more like real life.

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goal gradient effect

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increased activity as an organism nears a goal (Ex: when writing a paper, the first paragraph is the worst to start, but as you finish the body, the speed of completion increases (different story for the conclusion paragraph, though))

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heterogenous chain of reinforcement

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different types of responses (running, jumping, pecking a key) to gain reinforcement (different behaviors) (Ex: college- each semester/class is different... obstacle course)

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drive reduction theory

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an event is reinforced because it REDUCES a physiological drive or need (Ex: food as a reinforcer)

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incentive motivation

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motivation derived from a property of a reinforcement (Ex: money gets you food, water, shelter...)

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Premack principle

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a high-probability behavior (what you want to do) can reinforce a low probability behavior (what you don't want to do) (Ex: work, then play... play will reinforce the work)

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response deprivation hypothesis

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any behavior that has a baseline of occurrence that is most pleasing to the organism.

any behavior can be a reinforcer when access to the behavior is restricted and/or frequency falls below its desired level of occurrence. (Ex: not being able to walk/ hold kids)

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behavioral bliss point approach

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when an organism can act freely in its environment, it will choose activities that will maximize reinforcement.

assumes rationality. sounds good, but not in real life.

(Ex: win lotto... what will you eat tomorrow?... it gets boring)

variety can be reinforcing!

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extinction

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the process by which an operant behavior is eliminated or greatly reduced in occurence.

non-reinforcement following the exhibition of the target behavior.

trying to get a behavior to go away without punishment.

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extinction burst

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temporary increase in frequency and intensity of responding

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increase in variablility

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behavior will become variable,

organism will try to adjust for reinforcement

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emotional behavior

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organism may become agitated or violent

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aggressive behavior

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organism may become violent or unusually agressive

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resurgence

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reappearance of other behaviors that once produced a reinforcement

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depression

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organism may reduce activity levels to an extreme degree, which is usually associated with this label

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*****resistance to extinction*****

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the extent to which responding persists during extinction.

will likely be strongest following plenty of reinforcement and experience on an FR100 schedule

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schedule of reinforcement

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behavior maintained on a partial reinforcement schedule will be more resistant to extinction

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history of reinforcement

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more reinforcers an organism has earned for a behavior, the more resistant to extinction it will be (Ex: MB having a history of changing spark plugs; when the next appliance didn't get fixed because of that, freaked)

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magnitude of reinforcer

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large-magnitude reinforcers for a behavior are more resistant to extinction than small-magnitude reinforcers

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degree of deprivation

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the more deprived state of an animal, the more resistant to extinction it will be (deprived from the reinforcer)

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experience with extinction

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the more an organism has been exposed to extinction, the less resistant to extinction it becomes

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signal for extinction

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if a discriminative stimulus for extinction is present, the organism becomes less resistant to extinction

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*****spontaneous recovery*****

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the reappearance of extinguished behaviors following a rest period (Ex: Reid crying the next day for phone, but shorter)

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differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO)

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the reinforcement of all behavior other than the target behavior can facilitate extinction (Ex: animal training- install the behavior with reinforcement and then stop reinforcing it to make it go away... doesn't work for instincts)

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stimulus control

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creating a circumstance where you make a behavior happen.

most useful to animal and child training.

reliable stimulus-response

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stimulus generalization

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tendency to perform an operant response if a stimulus similar to a discriminative stimulus (S sub D) is present (Ex: Annie is more receptive to heightened emotions and is more obedient, varied tones/pitches lead to reacting differently)

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generalization gradient

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graphic representation of a range of discriminative stimuli

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stimulus discrimination

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learned differences among discriminative stimuli.

the closer to the discriminative stimuli, the more bar pressing

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discriminative stimulus for extinction (S sub delta)

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a stimulus that signals that reinforcement will not be delivered

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*****the peak shift effect*****

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the peak of the generalization gradient will shift from the original (S sub D) to a point further removed from the (S sub delta), following discrimination training.

when attempting this, "train with 2, test with many" is a good rule of thumb.

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multiple schedules

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2 or more independent schedules presented in sequence, each resulting in reinforcement and each having a separate (S sub D)

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*****behavioral contrast*****

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a change in a rate of reinforcement on one schedule equals an opposite change in the rate of responding on another schedule

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negative behavioral contrast

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an INcrease in the rate of reinforcement on one component produces a DEcrease in the rate of responding on the other component

(behavior is DEcreasing, so rate of reinforcement is INcreasing)

the first component changes to become more attractive, so the second component seems less attractive, hence, less responding.

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positive behavioral contrast

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a DEcrease in the rate of reinforcement on one component results in an INcrease of responding on the other component.

as the first becomes less attractive, the unchanged appears more attractive

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anticipatory contrast

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rate of response varies inversely with an upcoming change in the rate of reinforcement.

animal must have an (S sub D... discriminative stimulus) that signals impending change

once signal is given, animal will begin vigorously obtaining reinforcement

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fading

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gradually altering the entensity of a (S sub D... discriminative stimulus)

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errorless training

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training that utilizes fading that usually results in no responding to the (S sub delta... discriminative stimulus for extinction)

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process for errorless training

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train with (S sub D... discriminative stimulus) nomally

introduce brief, faint (S sub delta... discriminative stimulus for extinction)

gradually increase stregnth of (S sub delta... discriminative stimulus for extinction)

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targeting

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differentially reinforce looking at a particular target, then using this target as an (S sub delta... discriminative stimulus for extinction) (Ex: lazer pointer at the zoo)

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placing behavior on "cue"

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give an undesirable behavior an (S sub D... discriminative stimulus) or cue, such that it comes to only be performed on that cue

(pipe dream... not easy)

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insomnia

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make certain behaviors or items cues for sleep

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escape behaviors

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behaviors that alleviate or terminate an aversive stimulus

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avoidance behaviors

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behaviors that prevent an aversive stimulus

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2-process theory of avoidance

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avoidance is made up of 2 distinct processes...

1- classical conditioning of a fear to a CS (a discriminative stimulus in the operant chamber)

2- operant conditioning in the negatively-reinforced reduction in fear

(Ex: light causes fear, avoidance reduces this fear)

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anxiety conservation hypothesis

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explains why fear conditioning won't extinguish; the organism immediately "copes" with anxiety, not giving it exposure enough to extinguish

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one-process theory

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only the lower rate of shock is reinforced, maintaining the behavior

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species-specific defense reaction

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avoidance behavior actually elicited rather than operant

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similarities between phobias and avoidance behaviors

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development of a fear response,

failure of fear response to extinguish,

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differences between phobias and avoidance behaviors

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in experimental avoidance, animals avoid the US, not the CS as in phobias

avoidance response tends to occur after a number of trials, not just one trial as in phobias

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phobias in a lab setting example

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creation of a track with a conveyor belt,

belt not moving, rat could explore,

a dark-walled section led to a dark compartment,

shock delivered in the dark,

the rat hung out in total light, to avoid the darkness= more phobic than avoidance behavior.

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obsessive-compulsive disorder is comprised of

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obsessions and compulsions

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obsessions are

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intrusive thoughts, increase anxiety

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compulsions are

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actions that address the thoughts, decrease anxiety

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anal retentive means that you

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hold your poop in

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*****OCD as avoidance behavior, similarities*****

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disease reported as avoidance- behaviors prevent an unfavorable outcome,

obsessions increase anxiety, compulsions decrease anxiety: very reinforcing through NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

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exposure and response prevention (ERP)

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treatment for OCD that involves exposing them to their anxiety- causing event (obsession) and preventing them from the response (compulsion)...

can be quite effective because it is like in-vivo flooding... it leads to extinction

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time out

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loss of access to positive reinforcement for a set period of time

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response cost

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removal of a specific reinforcer

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intrinsic punishment

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the behavior itself is punishing (Ex: putting hand on hot stove or sparkler)

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extrinsic punishment

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not inherent to the behavior, instead applied following the behavior

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primary punishers

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events that are naturally punishing

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secondary punishers

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those events that are punishable through association (Ex: scowling or glaring)

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generalized secondary punishers

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associated with many other punishers (Ex: how are you? "FINE"= maybe not)

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problems in the application of punishment

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doesn't strenghten good behavior, only eliminates target behavior (you can't punish a kid into being good),

deliverer/punisher could become a discriminative stimulus for punishment (Ex: Burns's Dad),

may only teach avoidance of deliverer (Ex: avoid Burns's Dad),

likely to elicit strong emotional responses (Ex: anger or fear)... this is why you talk it out before punishment,

through observational learning, may teach punished that punishing is acceptable means of controlling behavior,

use of punishment itself is extremely reinforced (they will comply)

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appropriate use of punishment

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should be immediate rather than delayed (especially to things that don't speak- dogs),

should ideally follow each occurence of behavior (stay predictable and consistent),

intense enough from outset to suppress the target behavior (may change over time),

punishment should be accompanied by a verbal explanation (for humans) since it takes a while for impulse control to develop in children

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punishment is more

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efficient than reinforcement, but be careful!

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conditioned suppression theory

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punishment doesn't weaken a behavior, but really produces an emotional response that interferes with the occurrence of the behavior.

an organism is so upset by being punished that it loses interest in the original punishing behavior

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avoidance theory of punishment

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punishment actually involves avoidance conditioning because anything but the target behavior is reinforced by a no-punishment contingency,

bad behavior is punished,

if avoided, everything is negatively reinforced by decreasing fear

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premack approach to punishment

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a low-probability behavior can be used to punish a more probable behavior.

something an organism doesn't like can be used as a punishment for engaging in a behavior an organism does like

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learned helplessness

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dogs were placed in a shock box.

some could escape, some couldn't.

once dogs that thought they couldn't escape were given control, they didn't know they had control.

this study tried to mimic depression.

led to withdrawal, assuming bad things would happen, and external locus of control (Ex: passive behavior in abused people)

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noncontingent

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willy-nilly, for no apparent reason

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experimental neurosis

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exposed cats to noncontingent shocks or blasts of air while eating lead to cats stopping breathing for a second and aggrivation.

calm cats= agitated and non-trusting.

feisty cats= withdrawn and passive.

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what are the implications for inappropriately applied punishments to animals?

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they may not ascribe blame to where they should,

noncontingent punishment can change personality,

want punishment to be predictable, emotionless, and immediate.

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concurrent schedules- choices

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simultaneous presentation of 2 or more independent schedules, each of which leads to a reinforcement.

the organism must choose the behavior between 2 or more options

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the matching law

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the proportion of responses emitted on a particular schedule matches the proportion of reinforcement obtained on that schedule.

thus, the proportion of responses will vary directly with the proportion of reinforcements for an option.

(Ex: more time playing basketball, should you go for the 2-point shot vs. the 3-point shot?)

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deviations from matching law

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undermatching

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undermatching

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proportion of responses between the 2 alternatives is less different than would be predicted.

occurs when there is a low penalty for switching

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ways to induce resistance to extinction

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schedule of reinforcement, history of reinforcement, magnitude of reinforcer, degree of deprivation, experience with extinction, signal for extinction

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2 studies that demonstrated the effects of noncontingent punishment were

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experimental neurosis in cats, and learned helplessness in dogs.