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130 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What's the purpose of Research? |
Advance understanding and knowledge within a given field |
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What are the 4 types of research approaches? |
Descriptive, qualitative, experimental, and historical |
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Descriptive research approach |
Describes "What is" (quantitatively) Explores current conditions and relationships between variables |
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Qualitative research approach |
Describes "What is" Explores existing phenomena in natural settings |
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Experimental research approach |
[Futuristic] Describes "What will be" Seeks causal relationships. Variables are controlled and manipulated |
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Historical research approach |
Describes "What was" Discovers generalizations helping understand past and present |
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Hypotheses |
Tentative explanations for the relationship between 2 or more variables. An "educated guess" The idea that a certain outcome will result from the research process 2 types: Research and null |
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What are the characteristics of a hypothesis? |
1. Clear and simple statements 2. Based on theory/research 3. State a relationship between at least 2 variables 4. Are testable 5. It can be refuted |
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Directional Hypothesis |
The researcher has reason to believe a particular relationship or difference exists. Will be stated directionally ie. " Does vitamin D deficiency lead to a decreased muscle strength in athletes" |
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Non-Directional Hypothesis |
Researcher has no reason to believe a particular relationship or difference exists in any direction. A difference is expected but the direction isn't stated. |
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Null Hypothesis |
Research hypothesis isn't tested directly by the data - it is transformed into H0. H0 states there is no difference/relationship between the variables tested |
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Do hypotheses help to focus research design and methods? |
Yes |
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What does a finding of no significance mean? |
It can be just as important as finding that the null hypothesis is rejected. It cannot be ignored. |
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What types of research generally have hypotheses? Which don't? |
Have: Difference or relationship questions Don't: Descriptive may not need one |
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What are the 3 basic types of data collecting techniques? |
1. Observation 2. Measurement 3. Questioning |
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Data collecting technique: Observation |
2 types 1. Direct: Researcher directly observes research participants. Participants usually know they are being observed. The researcher's presence might change the way participants behave (Hawthorne Effect) 2. Participant: Observer participates in research setting with the research participants, often spending considerable time in their natural setting developing field notes. Used in qualitative research. |
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Direct observation |
Researcher directly observes research participants. Participants usually know they are being observed. The researcher's presence might change the way participants behave (Hawthorne Effect) |
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Participant observation |
Observer participates in research setting with the research participants, often spending considerable time in their natural setting developing field notes. Used in qualitative research. |
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Measurement |
Almost anything can be measured. Researcher may test participants or apply a device to measure certain qualities. 3 major categories: (1) Physical, (2) Cognitive, and (3) Affective |
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Physical Measurements |
ie Body composition, muscular strength, CV endurance |
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Cognitive Measurements |
ie memory, executive function, language... |
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Affective Measurements |
Opinion, attitudes, personality, motivation Difficult to capture quantitatively and are typically measured with inventories, scales, and/or questionnaires [qualitative] |
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Inventory |
An instrument with a list of statements which the participant marks yes/no; true/false; agree/disagree |
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Scale |
Measures degree to which the participant values/exhibits a concept or characteristic of interest. Common scales: Likert, semantic differential, rating, structured alternative |
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Likert scale |
Measures degree which an individual exhibits a particular attitude belief, characteristic, or interest. Scale from 1-# (from disagree to agree) |
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Semantic Differential Scale |
Participants make judgements based on the use of a list of bipolar adjectives (ie bad-good, hot-cold). An 'X' is placed along the scale where the participants feel it describes their opinion |
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Rating Scales |
Captures one's impression or behavior to a particular concept. Participants choose one response category from several options provided on a predetermined scale. - Numerical scale (similar to the likert) - Verbal frequency scale (ie How often do you...?) - Forced ranking scale (ie Ranking multiple events, like rating students for scholarships) |
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Structured-Alternative Scale |
Designed to reduce the tendency to provide a 'socially desirable' response. It is a 4-pt scale where one must: 1. Describe which of the two opposing statements best describes them 2. Choose whether the response is 'kind of' or 'really' true ie. CAPL CSAPPA Questionnaire |
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Structured questionnaires |
Closed ended. Answered with yes/no or true/false. Quick and easy, but have limited depth. |
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Unstructured questionnaires |
Open ended. Allows participants to respond in their own words. Long and time consuming. Very informative. |
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Structured Interview |
Oral questionnaire. Closed ended. Researcher only poses question once. |
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Unstructured Interview |
Oral questionnaire. Open ended. Usually recorded |
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Focus Group Interview |
Interview with a group. Designed to stimulate participants free expression. Requires a skilled facilitator to guide. |
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Delphi Technique |
A questioning method to obtain a group consensus. Individuals respond to questions to produce a collective input of group. Each person then reviews their position based upon collective responses and revises position as warranted. May require several iterations. |
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What factors need to be considered in selecting methodology and instrumentation? |
- Demands on research participants - Cost in terms of money, energy, and time - Ability of the researcher to handle the selected technique, including the data analysis. - They also have to keep in mind the objectivity, reliability, and the validity of the methods and instrumentation |
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Data Collecting instruments |
Any tool used by the researcher to collect data to answer their research question |
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Objectivity |
Degree to which multiple scores or raters agree on the value of the collected measures |
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Reliability |
Consistency with which an instrument measures a given variable |
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Validity |
Degree to which the instrument measures what is intended to measure |
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Instrument Revision |
If an instrument is found, but it is not quite suitable, it may be modified or revised. Permission should be obtained before revising a copy righted instrument developed by someone else. If changes are major, then it may be necessary to determine new indices of reliability and validity of the revised instrument |
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Instrument development and steps |
Could be time consuming and challenging. Only should be undertaken if there's no existing instrument that will suffice. The basic steps include: 1. Review the literature 2. Develop tentative instrument 3. Obtain opinions of experts concerning the instrument. 4. Revise the instrument as needed 5. Pilot test the instrument 6. Further revise the instrument as needed 7. Finalize the instrument |
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Nazi Experimentation |
Medical experiments conducted by German scientists during WWII that subjected unwilling participants to extreme cruelty and inhuman treatment. ie Freezing experiments, Malaria experiments, and high-altitude experiments |
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Nuremberg Code |
The basic principles of ethical conduct that govern research involving human participants that were developed as a result of Nuremberg Trials of German Scientists. First attempt at establishing ethical standards Consists of: 1. Voluntary human consent 2. Must be necessary and not random in nature, yielding results for the good of society. 3. Should be designed and based on previous animal experiments, and only done if necessary with good reasons to do so. 4. Should avoid all unnecessary physical and mental suffering 5.No experiment should lead to death or permanent disability. 6. Degree of risk should never exceed that determined by the humanitarian importance of the problem 7. Participants should always be protected from even the smallest possibilities of death or permanent injury 8. Should only be conducted by qualified scientific individuals 9. Participant always has the freedom to end the experiment, regardless of if it is finished or not. 10. Scientist in charge must be prepared to terminate the experiment at any stage if he has good reason to believe that continuing may lead to death, disability, or injury to the participant. |
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Tuskegee Syphilis Study |
U.S. Public Health Service research study conducted in the mid-1900s that is infamous for the maltreatment of the participants |
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Ethics |
Moral principles that define one's values in terms of acceptable behaviors |
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Situational Ethics |
An ethical paradigm that proposes that no general rules can be applied to all situations and that ethics are all situational |
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Helsinki Declarations |
Ethical guidelines defined by the World Medical Association for medical research involving human participants |
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Scientific Misconduct |
The fabrication, falsification, plagarism, or other practices that seriously deviate from those commonly accepted by the scientific community for proposing, conducting, or reporting research |
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Belmont Report |
The fundamental document that provides current federal regulations for the protection of human participants in research in the US |
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Respect for persons |
Ethical principle proclaiming respect for individuals involved as participants in research studies |
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Beneficence |
Ethical principle obligating researchers to protect persons from harm and to maximize possible benefits and minimize possible harms |
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Justice |
Ethical principle requiring that the benefits and burdens of research be fairly distributed, thus impacting upon the selection of research participants. |
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45 C.F.R. 46 |
Common rule Specific federal law that establishes regulations governing research involving human participants in the US |
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Institutional Review Board |
IRB Local committee established by an institution whose purpose is to ensure the protection of human participants involved in research activities |
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Informed Consent |
Explicit statement informing potential research participants of the purposes, procedures, risks, and benefits of a research project; provides an acknowledgement that participation is done so voluntarily. |
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Assent |
Statement of consent or agreement made by a child regarding his or her involvement in a research project |
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Privacy |
The capacity of individuals to control when and under what conditions others will have access to their behaviors, beliefs, and values |
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Confidentiality |
The ability to link information or data collected during a research study to a person's identity |
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Plagiarism |
The presentation of ideas or the work of others as one's own; the absence of proper credit |
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Authorship |
The primary method through which researchers receive recognition for their research efforts |
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What are the 3 questions to consider when choosing population and samples? |
1. Are the research participants appropriate for the research question? 2. Are the research participants representative of the population of interest? 3. How many research participants should be used? |
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Population |
Refers to an entire group or aggregate of people or elements having one or more common characteristic. |
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Sampling |
Process where a small proportion or subgroup of population is selected for observation and analysis |
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Sample |
A subgroup of a population of interest that's thought to be representative of a larger population CRUCIAL that this is representative of population |
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Population validity |
The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized from the sample to the population |
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What are the steps in the sampling process? |
1. Identify target population 2. Identify the accessible population (sampling frame) 3. Determine the desired sample size 4. Select the specific sampling technique 5. Implement sampling plan |
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Random Selection |
Representativeness of subjects in the sample |
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Random Assignment |
Groups are "equivalent" at the beginning of the study. This adds control to the study. |
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What are the 2 main sampling procedures? |
1. Probability Sampling: Sampling techniques where the probability of selecting each participant is known. Does not guarantee representativeness. 2. Non-Probability Sampling: Samples aren't selected randomly. Difficult to claim the sample's representativeness. Intact groups and volunteers |
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Probability Sampling |
Sampling techniques where the probability of selecting each participant is known. Does not guarantee representativeness. 4 types: simple, stratified, systematic, and cluster |
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Non-Probability Sampling |
Samples aren't selected randomly. Difficult to claim the sample's representativeness. Intact groups and volunteers. Typically not very generalizable 2 types: purposive and convenience |
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Simple Random Sampling |
Every member of the population has equal probability of being selected. Sampling with replacement versus sampling without replacement Typical procedrue: Fishbowl technique (picking a name out of a hat [without replacing--replacing is more fair]), Table of random numbers, computer generated sampling |
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Stratified random sampling |
Dividing population into various subgroups based on some characteristic that's important to control. No sampling unit can appear more than once per individual (ie male vs female) |
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Systematic Sampling |
An alternative to simple random sampling. Researcher will choose 1/kth of the sampling frame with k being any constant. Systematic sampling is a practical approximation of random sampling. |
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Cluster Sampling |
Sampling unit is a naturally occurring group or cluster of members of the population (ie. classroom, schools, teams...) |
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Purposive Sampling |
Non-Probability Sampling Sample is selected because it possesses certain characteristics that the researcher wants |
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Convenience Sampling |
Non-Probability Sampling Sample is selected on the basis of being accessible and convenient. ie. Using class for research, or grad students, or faculty as subjects |
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Power of statistical analysis |
The probability that the test will reject H0 when the H0 is false. Larger sample size increases statistical power |
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Points to consider when choosing sample size: |
- Nature of study - Statistical considerations (types of stats, tests...) - **Variability of population of measured variable - # of treatment groups necessary - Practical factors |
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What is sample size inversely related to? |
Sample Error. Therefore, a larger sample leads to a smaller sampling error, making it more representative of the population. |
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If there is little variability in a population, what sample size is ok? |
Small sample |
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If there is high variability in a population, what sample size is ok? |
Large sample is necessary |
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What types of research typically have larger samples? Which have smaller? |
Larger: Descriptive and correlational Smaller: Experimental |
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What are the 14 stages of Experimental research? |
1. State research problem 2. Determine if experimental methods apply 3. Specify the independent variable (s) 4. Specify the dependent variable (s) - usually several 5. State tentative hypothesis 6. Determine measures to be used 7. Pause to consider potential success of study (feasibility) 8. Identify extraneous variables 9. Formal statement of research hypothesis 10. Design Experiment 11. Final estimate of potential success 12. Conduct study as planned 13. Analyze collected data 14. Prepare a research report |
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What are the 5P's and what type of research do they impact the greatest? |
Prior planning prevents poor performance Experimental |
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Validity |
Degree to which interpretations of test scores lead to correct conclusions |
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Internal validity |
Technical soundness of a study. ie. Control of extraneous influences that may affect the outcome The basis minimum for experimental research |
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External Validity |
Generalizability of results ie. sample size, sample bias, female/males... |
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What are 8 threats to Internal Validity? |
1. History: Events occurring during the experiment that aren't part of the treatment. ie PD patients that exercise 2. Maturation: Biological/psychological processes within participants that may change due to the passing of time (ie fatigue, hunger, aging) 3. Testing: The effects of on test upon subsequent administrations of the same test 4. Instrumentation: Changes in testing instruments, raters, or interviews 5. Statistical Regression: The fact that groups selected on the basis of extreme scores are not as extreme on subsequent testing (ie handedness scores before/after) 6. Selection bias: Identification of comparison groups in other than a random manner 7. Experimental Mortality: Loss of participants and groups are no longer representative of population 8. Interaction among factors: Factors can operate together to influence experimental results |
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What are 4 threats to External Validity? |
1. Interaction effect of testing: The fact that the pretest may make the participants more aware/sensitive to the upcoming treatment (ie. calling for left handers versus just calling for participants) 2. Interaction effect of selection bias: When participants selected in a biased manner react uniquely to treatment 3. Reactive effects of experimental setting: The fact that treatments in constrained laboratory settings may not be effective in real-world settings (ie PD patients walking to music in gym vs street) 4. Multiple-treatment interference: When participants receive more than one treatment, the effects of previous treatments may influence subsequent ones. |
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What are the 3 types of experimental designs? |
1) Pre-Experimental 2) True Experimental 3) Quasi-Experimental |
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Pre-Experimental Design |
ie. One group pretest/posttest design. A single group is exposed to the pretest, treatment, and posttest. Weak experimental design in terms of control. No random sampling. Contains threats to internal and external validity are significant problems |
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True Experimental |
Pretest/posttest control group design. There is one control group and one experimental group. Participants are randomly selected and randomly assigned to the groups. Best design because it controls for internal validity. Utilizes random selection of participants and random assignment to groups (also controlling for external validity) |
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Quasi-Experimental |
Most often used. Pretest/posttest control group design. One experimental group and one control group, BUT there is no random selection or assignment. Lack some control, but are generally considered to be acceptable |
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What are 3 methods of control in experimental research? |
1. Physical Manipulation 2. Selective manipulation 3. Statistical techniques |
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Physical Manipulation |
Method of control in experimental research. Attempt to control all aspects of the research, except the experimental treatment. Possible in animal research, but difficult to meet in human research. |
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Selective manipulation |
Method of control in experimental research. To increase the likelihood that treatment groups are similar at the beginning of the study. (ie. age, sex, education...) 2 types of designs: Matched pairs design or counterbalanced design |
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Matched pairs design |
Form of Selective manipulation. Where participants are paired because of their similarities (age, gender, education...) and then placed into different test groups. |
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Counterbalanced design |
Form of Selective manipulation. All groups receive the treatment but in different orders. Well balanced and well controlled |
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Statistical Techniques |
Method of control in experimental research. Applied when physical or selective manipulations are not possible. Differences among treatment groups are known to exist at the beginning of the study. ie. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) |
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What are 7 common sources of error in experimental research? |
1. Hawthorne Effect: Reactive effect. Merely being a participant affects behavior 2. Placebo Effect: Participants believe that experimental treatment is supposed to change them, so they respond to the treatment with a change in performance. 3. "John Henry" Effect: Participants in control group try harder just because they are in the control. 4. Rating Effect: Errors associated with ratings of a participant or group. - Halo effect: Initial impressions influence future rating scores (overrate or underrate) - Central tendency error: Researcher rates everyone in the middle because they are trying to avoid bias. 5. Experimental Bias Effect: The intentional or unintentional influence that the researcher may exert on a study. - Single-blind study: Participants are blind to the purpose of the study -Double-blind study: Participants and researchers are blind to the purpose or group assignment. Strong methodologically 6. Participant-Researcher Interaction Effect: Gender/race of the researcher may influence the results. 7. Post Hoc Effect: Assuming a cause-effect relationship where there isn't one. |
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Hawthorne Effect |
Source of error in experimental research Reactive effect. Merely being a participant affects behavior |
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Placebo Effect |
Source of error in experimental research Participants believe that experimental treatment is supposed to change them, so they respond to the treatment with a change in performance. |
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"John Henry" Effect |
Source of error in experimental research Participants in control group try harder just because they are in the control. |
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Rating Effect |
Source of error in experimental research Errors associated with ratings of a participant or group. - Halo effect: Initial impressions influence future rating scores (overrate or underrate) - Central tendency error: Researcher rates everyone in the middle because they are trying to avoid bias. |
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Experimental Bias Effect |
Source of error in experimental research The intentional or unintentional influence that the researcher may exert on a study. - Single-blind study: Participants are blind to the purpose of the study -Double-blind study: Participants and researchers are blind to the purpose or group assignment. Strong methodologically |
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Single-blind study |
Helps to decrease experimental bias effect. Participants are blind to the purpose of the study |
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Double-blind study |
Helps to decrease experimental bias effect. Participants and researchers are blind to the purpose or group assignment. Strong methodologically |
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Participant-Researcher Interaction Effect |
Source of error in experimental research Gender/race of the researcher may influence the results. |
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Post Hoc Effect |
Source of error in experimental research Assuming a cause-effect relationship where there isn't one. |
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What are the 8 types of descriptive research? |
1. Survey Research: Most common. Involves questioning techniques for data collection 2. Developmental Research: Deals with growth and development over time. There are 2 types: Longitudinal and cross-sectional. -Longitudinal: A group is measured/observed on a regular basis over time -Cross-sectional: Samples of each age group are tested at the same time, over a given time. 3. Case-Study: Study of a person or an event in great detail and describing what is found. More common in medical research. May not be generalizable. 4. Correlational Research: Determines if a relationship exists between variables. Similar to experimental. 5. Normative Research: Purpose is to develop performance standards. 6. Observational Research: Data are observations of people or programs. The researchers write a report based on the recorded observations. Record and observe. 7. Action Research: Conducted in the natural setting where the research is applied. Tries to find an answer to a problem that exists in the natural setting. 8. Causal-Comparative Research: "Ex post facto". Research conducted using data that were generated before the research study was conceived. |
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Survey Research |
Type of descriptive research. Most common. Involves questioning techniques for data collection Provides a basis of making comparisons, determining trends, and/or revealing weaknesses/strengths. Limitations: Reveals, at best, what the situation is and not what it should be |
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Developmental Research |
Type of descriptive research. Deals with growth and development over time. There are 2 types: Longitudinal and cross-sectional. -Longitudinal: A group is measured/observed on a regular basis over time -Cross-sectional: Samples of each age group are tested at the same time, over a given time. |
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Longitudinal Research |
A type of developmental research (descriptive) A group is measured/observed on a regular basis over time |
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Cross-sectional Research |
A type of developmental research (descriptive) Samples of each age group are tested at the same time, over a given time. |
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Case-Study |
Type of descriptive research. Study of a person or an event in great detail and describing what is found. More common in medical research. May not be generalizable. |
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Correlational Research |
Type of descriptive research. Determines if a relationship exists between variables. Similar to experimental. |
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Normative Research |
Type of descriptive research. Purpose is to develop performance standards. |
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Observational Research |
Type of descriptive research. Data are observations of people or programs. The researchers write a report based on the recorded observations. Record and observe. |
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Action Research |
Type of descriptive research. Conducted in the natural setting where the research is applied. Tries to find an answer to a problem that exists in the natural setting. |
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Causal-Comparative Research |
Type of descriptive research. "Ex post facto". Research conducted using data that were generated before the research study was conceived. |
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What are the limitations of survey research? |
Reveals, at best, what the situation is and not what it should be |
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How to plan a survey? |
Ask yourself: Is a survey the most appropriate way to investigate the question Ensure that the data collected will be pertinent to the research question. Determine survey methods |
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What are different methods of surveys? |
Phone/Web interview: Quick and inexpensive when the sample is spread over a wide area. Does not allow for many questions and recording answers. May be difficult Personal interview: Researcher meets with each member of the sample. Feasible when the sample is small. Multiple types: Structured, semi structured, or unstructured. Administered & Distributed questionnaires: Questionnaires are the most common survey in knes. Series of questions or statements on a paper (or orally). Each participant is given a copy be either meeting him/her (administered) or by mail (distributed). Good questionnaire research requires considerable planning and technique. |
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Phone/Web interview |
Survey method Quick and inexpensive when the sample is spread over a wide area. Does not allow for many questions and recording answers. May be difficult |
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Personal interview |
Survey method Researcher meets with each member of the sample. Feasible when the sample is small. Multiple types: Structured, semi structured, or unstructured. |
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Administered & Distributed questionnaires |
Survey method Questionnaires are the most common survey in knes. Series of questions or statements on a paper (or orally). Each participant is given a copy be either meeting him/her (administered) or by mail (distributed). Good questionnaire research requires considerable planning and technique. |
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How do you develop a questionnaire? |
The research question dictates the types of questions/statements that are used. These can be open-ended, completion, or multiple choice questions. **Remember**: A questionnaire is a self-report instrument used to determine opinions or attitudes. Each question must have 3 important attributes: focus, brevity, and simplicity. Must consider: -Clear directions for responding -an example question and an answer -each item must be carefully written so it's easy to understand (no ambiguity) - The reading level of participants (use simple vocabulary) -The attention span of people - The reliability and validity of the questionnaire must be determined before its use. - Reliability/consistency of response - Organization of the questionnaire: appearance and layout is important. Longer questions have poorer response return rate. Easy to answer questions should go first. Sensitive questions should be near the end. Logical order. |
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What are common errors in survey research? |
- Using compound questions to ask about 2 or more separate issues. Instead, they should be separate questions - Using jargon or technical language that may not be understood by participants. - Asking leading questions that reflect the researcher's bias or suggests an answer the researcher feels is appropriate. - Using negatives and double negatives (confusing) |
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Questionnaire Distribution |
- Must control for cost: ie bulk mail rates, length of questionnaires (weight of mailing)... -High return rate: Self addressed, stamped envelope (SASE), pre-paid postage, business reply envelopes. Have a good mailing list and a follow up strategy. Should have a cover letter explaining who it is for, what it is doing, and why it is doing it. Have appropriate timing of mailing |
