Iron Curtain Speech

Front 1

Containment

Back 1

Containment refers to the foreign policy strategy of the United States in the early years of the Cold War. Its policy was to stop what is called the domino effect of nations moving politically towards Soviet Union-based communism, rather than European-American-based capitalism.
• Containment is the drive of American foreign policy after WWII and helps contribute to the Cold War
• Was promoted by George Kennan who insisted that the Soviets were on a quest to continue taking over small nations in Europe, and eventually moving into the west
o Therefore, as a matter of national security, the US must contain soviet influence
o He believed in economic and diplomatic containment, rather than military action
• This remains an American policy until the late 1980s
• The policy of containment greatly impacted the US in four ways
o 1. Served as a rallying cry for citizens and the president against the evils of communism
o 2. Emphasizes the importance of property rights and civil liberties
o 3. Enforces a peacetime military
o 4. Obscured the rational of American policy as the US begins to support brutal regimes around the world, simply because they are anti-communist
• Containment becomes an actual policy because of the internal affairs of Greece
o It was controlled by an anti-communist monarch (who was supported by Britain)
o LOOK UP GREECE

Front 2

Truman Doctrine

Back 2

Proclamation from Pres. Harry Truman in 1947
Announced US would provide foreign aid to Turkey and Greece
Motive: If Greece fell to communist Soviet Union, Turkey would follow along with the Middle East (Domino Theory)

Front 3

Marshall Plan

Back 3

The Marshall Plan was the primary plan of the United States for rebuilding and creating a stronger foundation for the allied countries of Europe, and repelling communism after World War II. The initiative was named for Secretary of State George Marshall
Economic half of containment policy
June 1947
Urges European nations to put together plans of recovery and to ask US for help in recovering from WWII
Congress initially doesn’t support spending the proposed amount of money to help European nations
Fall of Czechoslovakia results in:
Congress approves Marshall Plan
The money given to European nations spent on American products

Front 4

NATO

Back 4

a military alliance established by the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty on 4 April 1949.
- North Atlantic Treaty Organization
- Organized system of collective defense: if one country in NATO gets attacked by an outside country, all others will respond w/ mutual defense (get to chose what this means—not necessarily militarily)
- I actually have NOTHING for this... here are my incomprehensible notes:
o “Truman asked Congress for funds. // placed 4 US troops in peacetime in European countries. // mutual security act → only enacted post-9/11”
- check out Wiki: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nato

Front 5

Berlin Airlift

Back 5

The Berlin Blockade (June 24, 1948 to May 11, 1949) was one of the first major crises of the new Cold War. It began when the Soviets blocked railroad and street access by the three Western powers (the Americans, British, and French) to the Western-occupied sectors of Berlin. The crisis abated after the Western powers bypassed the blockade by establishing the Berlin Airlift, demonstrating both their dedication to the cause of supplying their zones, as well as the industrial might of the West and its air force's capabilities
- (Remember: France, England and the US united the ¾ of divided-up Germany to create an independent gov’t of West Germany, while the USSR controlled East Germany—also similar-looking 4-part division of Berlin)
- June ’48: Stalin blocked off all access to the Western part of Berlin
- Blockade = sorta based off of disagreement b/t sides: Stalin wanted to see Germany lose everything so the USSR could overtake Germany eventually, while US, etc. wanted to rebuild Germany as the economic center of a stable Europe → Stalin wanted his country’s former allies out of Berlin
- Airlift = When American and British planes brought in millions of tons of food to West Germany, because the countries had all negotiated 3 free 20-mile-wide air corridors that could provide access to the city
- May/June ’49: USSR humiliated that aircraft had lasted and worked for so long → 4 powers met and settled in Allies’ favor → Stalin lifted blockade
- for more info: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Airlift#Berlin_airlift

Front 6

Diexiecrats

Back 6

-This was a party of Southern Democrats.
-They insisted on supporting Segregation
-Did not want to conform to the more liberal Dems.
-In the 1948 election they caused a split in the Democratic Party
-nominated Strom Thurmond as their own candidate
-This split practically guaranteed victory for the Republicans
-Split within the Democratic party eventually lead to a shift in the South and a
gradual move towards the Republican party in years to come.

Front 7

Fair Deal

Back 7

, the Fair Deal was U.S. President Harry S. Truman's catchphrase for a series of social and economic reforms [1], outlined in his 1949 State of the Union Address
• Fair deal = middle ground
o Increased role of federal government!
• Progressivism
• Increase in support for an activist government
o Increased minimum wage, larger social security system
o Truman attempted (but failed) to pass nationalized health insurance—opponents called it socialist (late 1940s)
• Truman was committed to Civil Rights
o He was the 1st president to appoint a civil rights commission-investigated discrimination
o Sought to overturn housing covenances (denying homes to whomever you want, esp. blacks)
o Desegregated the armed forces.
o He tried to pass anti-lynching laws (but failed).

Front 8

House Unamerican Activities Committee (HUAC)

Back 8

an investigative committee of the United States House of Representatives.
-Started in 1938 with the goal of investigating communists in the US
-In 1947 HUAC had court hearing to investigate people in the film industry
-it was mainly a publicity stunt
-The “Hollywood 10” were sent to jail because they refused to testify in
court and provide information about fellow actors.
-Many of the Hollywood 10 claimed the 5th amendment because
they didn’t want to talk about others.
-HUAC and their investigations eventually lead to the Hollywood Black Lists
which lasted until 1960.

Front 9

Joseph McCarthy/McCarthyism

Back 9

• Joseph McCarthy was a senator from Wisconsin who drew from the fear of communism of the 50s and turns it into a witch hunt
o McCarthyism comes to define the era of the 1950s, even though anti-communist fears had been present before him
• McCarthy takes the Red Scare to new territory
• McCarthy gains a lot of momentum after Alger Hiss is convicted of participating in a Communist cell during the 1930s and McCarthy recognizes the political power he can attain through people’s fears
o He claims to know the names of 200 Communists within the American government who are shaping the policies of the country
• The public overwhelmingly supports his actions towards cleaning out the government…perhaps in part because he said that those who didn’t were subversive and dangerous
• McCarthy gains a lot of power in American society and politics—basically what he says goes
o Think Hollywood Blacklists etc.
o Truman did not support McCarthy and privately denounced his slander and lies, but McCarthy was too powerful for Truman to say anything publically—and much of the country supported him
• Reflects the desire for a domestic cleanup, initiated by the partisan politics and fear of the Cold War—trying to root out subversives that are damaging society
o Looking for a scapegoat for social problems, rather than actually confronting the issues—insist there must be spies etc.
• McCarthy finally goes too far when he accuses the Army of Communist ties and said they weren’t doing things properly—after 4 years of an unchecked witch hunt
o This is when society stopped supporting him

Front 10

Korean War

Back 10

June 1950 – July 1953
-War over the 38th parallel divide
North Korea = communist
South Korea = democratic
• In June 1950, North Korea attacks Seoul (S. Korea).
• N.Koreans quickly had control of many S. Korean cities. (S. Koreas retreating farther and farther south)
• Truman asks the UN for permission to intervene (approved)
o Note: at the time, the USSR was boycotting the UN. Their lack of presence in the UN helped a majority vote for intervention.
• McArthur headed the war efforts
• NO declaration of war!
• The majority of forces were American
• September 15: US +S.Korea launch surprise attack on N. Korea.
• Within weeks, this effort brings the fighters close to the 38th Parallel
• By October 9, McArthur crosses 38th parallel and pushes all the way up to the Yalu River
• N.Korea fights back, by March 1951 the US is pushed back to 38th parallel.
• McArthur: wants to drop an Atomic Bomb
• Truman: fires McArthur for insubordination. (Seen as a very brave move)
Total of 54,000 US died in Korea
Military Expenditure became 2/3 of US budget.

Korea was interesting because there was:
1. No Congressional consent (no formal declaration of war)
2. The beginning of increased military involvement in Asia
3. Increasing military expenditure of federal budget.

Front 11

Levit Towns

Back 11

Levittown gets its name from its builder, the firm of Levitt & Sons, Inc., which built it as a planned community between 1947 and 1951. Levittown was the first truly mass-produced suburb and is widely regarded as the archetype for postwar suburbs throughout the country.
first was on long island
Levit applied mass production concepts to house construction
Levit towns were suburbs that came about during the housing boom to which these mass production concepts were applied

Front 12

"Organization Man"

Back 12

Referred to exiting college students in the 50’s
Not a lot of independent thinking
Following the status quo
High school → college → corporate ladder
Fewer entrepreneurs
Much less questioning by young adults, merely blind acceptance of the way things were

Front 13

Kitchen Debate

Back 13

- ‘50s: Debate, in USSR, between Vice President Nixon and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, about each country’s economic styles (capitalism v. communism)
- Khrushchev makes fun of US, says all we have to offer are kitchen appliances; Nixon says that’s what’s great about the US—all our technological advancements

The Kitchen Debate was an impromptu debate (through interpreters) between then U.S. Vice President Richard Nixon and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev at the opening of the American National Exhibition in Moscow, on July 24, 1959. For the event, an entire house was built that the American exhibitors claimed anyone in America could afford. It was filled with labor saving and recreational devices meant to represent the fruits of the capitalist American consumer market.

Front 14

The Beats

Back 14

a term used to describe both a group of American writers who came to prominence in the late 1950s and early 1960s, and the cultural phenomena that they wrote about and inspired
- “Howl” – Allen Ginsberg (*READING FOR 3/28)
o Uncomfortable images, certain truths come out → emphasis on materialism = wrong; does this really define us?
o Owner of a San Francisco bookstore selling “Howl” arrested for selling “porn”
- other example: Jack Kerouac “On the Road”
- “Beat Generation,” aka “beatniks” = describe group of American writers in ‘50s and early ‘60s, and cultural phenomena they wrote about and inspired → nonconformist

Front 15

Marigold Report ()

Back 15

1933 The NAACP decided to try and gain equality through the courts. Their specific plan of attack was explained in the Marigold Report, a study written by Nathan Ross Marigold in 1933—a white, Harvard educated NAACP lawyer. Marigold argued that the NAACP should file a series of suits which would show that southern states had not established “separate but equal” facilities which was the legal standard the Supreme Court had set for fighting segregation with the 14th amendment. After making this case, Marigold recommended that the NAACP challenge the concept of separate but equal itself by claiming that it violated the equal protection clause of the amendment. Outline for attacking Plessy B. Ferguson. Forced equal facilities→making a truly equal system. The report becomes NAACP bible. Facilities were not made equal because that would be too expensive.

Front 16

Containment

Back 16

• Containment is the drive of American foreign policy after WWII and helps contribute to the Cold War
• Was promoted by George Kennan who insisted that the Soviets were on a quest to continue taking over small nations in Europe, and eventually moving into the west
o Therefore, as a matter of national security, the US must contain soviet influence
o He believed in economic and diplomatic containment, rather than military action
• This remains an American policy until the late 1980s
• The policy of containment greatly impacted the US in four ways
o 1. Served as a rallying cry for citizens and the president against the evils of communism
o 2. Emphasizes the importance of property rights and civil liberties
o 3. Enforces a peacetime military
o 4. Obscured the rational of American policy as the US begins to support brutal regimes around the world, simply because they are anti-communist
• Containment becomes an actual policy because of the internal affairs of Greece
o It was controlled by an anti-communist monarch (who was supported by Britain)
o LOOK UP GREECE

Front 17

Truman Doctrine

Back 17

Proclamation from Pres. Jimmy Carter in 1947
Announced US would provide foreign aid to Turkey and Greece
Motive: If Greece fell to communist Soviet Union, Turkey would follow along with the Middle East (Domino Theory)

Front 18

Marshall Plan

Back 18

Economic half of containment policy
June 1947
Urges European nations to put together plans of recovery and to ask US for help in recovering from WWII
Congress initially doesn’t support spending the proposed amount of money to help European nations
Fall of Czechoslovakia results in:
Congress approves Marshall Plan
The money given to European nations spent on American products

Front 19

NATO

Back 19

- North Atlantic Treaty Organization
- Organized system of collective defense: if one country in NATO gets attacked by an outside country, all others will respond w/ mutual defense (get to chose what this means—not necessarily militarily)
- I actually have NOTHING for this... here are my incomprehensible notes:
o “Truman asked Congress for funds. // placed 4 US troops in peacetime in European countries. // mutual security act → only enacted post-9/11”
- check out Wiki: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nato

Front 20

Berlin Airlift

Back 20

- (Remember: France, England and the US united the ¾ of divided-up Germany to create an independent gov’t of West Germany, while the USSR controlled East Germany—also similar-looking 4-part division of Berlin)
- June ’48: Stalin blocked off all access to the Western part of Berlin
- Blockade = sorta based off of disagreement b/t sides: Stalin wanted to see Germany lose everything so the USSR could overtake Germany eventually, while US, etc. wanted to rebuild Germany as the economic center of a stable Europe → Stalin wanted his country’s former allies out of Berlin
- Airlift = When American and British planes brought in millions of tons of food to West Germany, because the countries had all negotiated 3 free 20-mile-wide air corridors that could provide access to the city
- May/June ’49: USSR humiliated that aircraft had lasted and worked for so long → 4 powers met and settled in Allies’ favor → Stalin lifted blockade
- for more info: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Airlift#Berlin_airlift

Front 21

Diexiecrats

Back 21

-This was a party of Southern Democrats.
-They insisted on supporting Segregation
-Did not want to conform to the more liberal Dems.
-In the 1948 election they caused a split in the Democratic Party
-nominated Strom Thurmond as their own candidate
-This split practically guaranteed victory for the Republicans
-Split within the Democratic party eventually lead to a shift in the South and a
gradual move towards the Republican party in years to come.

Front 22

Fair Deal

Back 22

• By Truman once elected President (1945).
• Fair deal = middle ground
o Increased role of federal government!
• Progressivism
• Increase in support for an activist government
o Increased minimum wage, larger social security system
o Truman attempted (but failed) to pass nationalized health insurance—opponents called it socialist (late 1940s)
• Truman was committed to Civil Rights
o He was the 1st president to appoint a civil rights commission-investigated discrimination
o Sought to overturn housing covenances (denying homes to whomever you want, esp. blacks)
o Desegregated the armed forces.
o He tried to pass anti-lynching laws (but failed).

Front 23

House Unamerican Activities Committee (HUAC)

Back 23

-Started in 1938 with the goal of investigating communists in the US
-In 1947 HUAC had court hearing to investigate people in the film industry
-it was mainly a publicity stunt
-The “Hollywood 10” were sent to jail because they refused to testify in
court and provide information about fellow actors.
-Many of the Hollywood 10 claimed the 5th amendment because
they didn’t want to talk about others.
-HUAC and their investigations eventually lead to the Hollywood Black Lists
which lasted until 1960.

Front 24

Joseph McCarthy/McCarthyism

Back 24

• Joseph McCarthy was a senator from Wisconsin who drew from the fear of communism of the 50s and turns it into a witch hunt
o McCarthyism comes to define the era of the 1950s, even though anti-communist fears had been present before him
• McCarthy takes the Red Scare to new territory
• McCarthy gains a lot of momentum after Alger Hiss is convicted of participating in a Communist cell during the 1930s and McCarthy recognizes the political power he can attain through people’s fears
o He claims to know the names of 200 Communists within the American government who are shaping the policies of the country
• The public overwhelmingly supports his actions towards cleaning out the government…perhaps in part because he said that those who didn’t were subversive and dangerous
• McCarthy gains a lot of power in American society and politics—basically what he says goes
o Think Hollywood Blacklists etc.
o Truman did not support McCarthy and privately denounced his slander and lies, but McCarthy was too powerful for Truman to say anything publically—and much of the country supported him
• Reflects the desire for a domestic cleanup, initiated by the partisan politics and fear of the Cold War—trying to root out subversives that are damaging society
o Looking for a scapegoat for social problems, rather than actually confronting the issues—insist there must be spies etc.
• McCarthy finally goes too far when he accuses the Army of Communist ties and said they weren’t doing things properly—after 4 years of an unchecked witch hunt
o This is when society stopped supporting him

Front 25

Korean War

Back 25

June 1950 – July 1953
-War over the 38th parallel divide
North Korea = communist
South Korea = democratic
• In June 1950, North Korea attacks Seoul (S. Korea).
• N.Koreans quickly had control of many S. Korean cities. (S. Koreas retreating farther and farther south)
• Truman asks the UN for permission to intervene (approved)
o Note: at the time, the USSR was boycotting the UN. Their lack of presence in the UN helped a majority vote for intervention.
• McArthur headed the war efforts
• NO declaration of war!
• The majority of forces were American
• September 15: US +S.Korea launch surprise attack on N. Korea.
• Within weeks, this effort brings the fighters close to the 38th Parallel
• By October 9, McArthur crosses 38th parallel and pushes all the way up to the Yalu River
• N.Korea fights back, by March 1951 the US is pushed back to 38th parallel.
• McArthur: wants to drop an Atomic Bomb
• Truman: fires McArthur for insubordination. (Seen as a very brave move)
Total of 54,000 US died in Korea
Military Expenditure became 2/3 of US budget.

Korea was interesting because there was:
1. No Congressional consent (no formal declaration of war)
2. The beginning of increased military involvement in Asia
3. Increasing military expenditure of federal budget.

Front 26

Levit Towns

Back 26

Levit applied mass production concepts to house construction
Levit towns were suburbs that came about during the housing boom to which these mass production concepts were applied

Front 27

"Organization Man"

Back 27

Referred to exiting college students in the 50’s
Not a lot of independent thinking
Following the status quo
High school → college → corporate ladder
Fewer entrepreneurs
Much less questioning by young adults, merely blind acceptance of the way things were

Front 28

Kitchen Debate

Back 28

- ‘50s: Debate, in USSR, between Vice President Nixon and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, about each country’s economic styles (capitalism v. communism)
- Khrushchev makes fun of US, says all we have to offer are kitchen appliances; Nixon says that’s what’s great about the US—all our technological advancements

Front 29

The Beats

Back 29

- “Howl” – Allen Ginsberg (*READING FOR 3/28)
o Uncomfortable images, certain truths come out → emphasis on materialism = wrong; does this really define us?
o Owner of a San Francisco bookstore selling “Howl” arrested for selling “porn”
- other example: Jack Kerouac “On the Road”
- “Beat Generation,” aka “beatniks” = describe group of American writers in ‘50s and early ‘60s, and cultural phenomena they wrote about and inspired → nonconformist

Front 30

Marigold Report ()

Back 30

1933 The NAACP decided to try and gain equality through the courts. Their specific plan of attack was explained in the Marigold Report, a study written by Nathan Ross Marigold in 1933—a white, Harvard educated NAACP lawyer. Marigold argued that the NAACP should file a series of suits which would show that southern states had not established “separate but equal” facilities which was the legal standard the Supreme Court had set for fighting segregation with the 14th amendment. After making this case, Marigold recommended that the NAACP challenge the concept of separate but equal itself by claiming that it violated the equal protection clause of the amendment. Outline for attacking Plessy B. Ferguson. Forced equal facilities→making a truly equal system. The report becomes NAACP bible. Facilities were not made equal because that would be too expensive.

Front 31

Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party

Back 31

• The party was designed to give blacks a voice in the Democratic Party, which at this time was also the part of white southerners who had a very different agenda from much of the black population
o Hoping to bring change to politics—equality and Civil Rights
• At the 1964 Democratic convention, MFDP wanted to be recognized as a legitimate Mississippi representation of the party as they knew the other white democrats would not vote on Civil Rights and other controversial issues
o Lyndon B. Johnson worries that the party will split if the MFDP is recognized as many whites would walk out of the convention, so he compromises by seating two delegates and insisting that all future delegations be integrated
• This does very little for Mississippi blacks, but MLK urges the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party to take Johnson’s offer in the spirit of compromise, but they refuse
• The failure of the MFDP to achieve any real political power or change leads to great frustration especially among the youth of the Civil Rights Movement who begin to abandon faith in non-violence

Front 32

Fannie Lou Hamer

Back 32

• Fannie Lou Hamer was the most prominent speaker at the 1964 Democratic Convention and the testimony she issued was played throughout the country
o No one could deny that her cause (of equality and Civil Rights) was just after her speech
• She is/was well known because of her role as one of the most important female leaders of the voter registration movement
o She was very influential within the community—was a model of activism and strength for the young black and white students as she wasn’t afraid to suffer the consequences of her actions for what she thought was right
o At one point she tried to vote herself (probably before the movement) and lost her job—was black listed
• Arrested for her role in Voter Registration and was so brutally beaten that she was permanently disabled for the rest of her life
o This was the topic of her speech and why it was so powerful

Front 33

Voting Rights Act (1965)

Back 33

• Attorney General can send people inspect districts with less that 50%
• AfricanAmerican voter registration
• Eliminated literacy tests and understanding clauses
• End of legalized discrimination did not end discrimination as a whole

Front 34

Freedom Summer

Back 34

• A campaign in the summer of 1964 to register as many black voters as possible.
o Ran by Bob Moses
• Lots of violence broke out between the volunteers+blacks and segregationists+KKK. 15 deaths.
o MFDP=Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
• an alternative to the all white Democratic party.

Front 35

Bay of Pigs ()

Back 35

1961 On the 17th of April, 1961, a Brigade of Cuban exiles, landed at the Bay of Pigs on the coast of Cuba. They were mostly young men who came from all sectors of society and regions of the island with one common goal: to overthrow the growing communism led by Fidel Castro who was imposing a rigid totalitarian system. In three days of hard fighting they were defeated by highly superior forces. Almost 40 years after this event we must ask ourselves about the factors that determined the creation of the Brigade, the causes of their defeat, and its consequences for Cuba and the rest of the world. The unsuccessful attempted invasion by armed Cuban exiles in southwest Cuba, planned and funded by the United States, in an attempt to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro, shortly after John F. Kennedy assumed the presidency in the U.S. This action accelerated a rapid deterioration in Cuban-American relations, which was further worsened by the Cuban Missile Crisis the following year.

Front 36

Berlin Wall (1961-1989)

Back 36

The Berlin Wall divided the city of Berlin the capital of Germany into two parts with the nation itself being partitioned in to East Germany and West Germany. The Wall was constructed after World War II by the East German government. In this period the Cold War was at its peak and the Wall itself came to be regarded as a symbol dividing two ideologies as East Germany had a Communist government while West Germany had a democratically elected government. The wall separated East Berlin and West Berlin for 28 years, from the day construction began on August 13, 1961 until it was dismantled in 1989. Wall was constructed in an effort to prevent mass migration of people from East Germany to West Germany. After construction of the wall Berlin was effectively divided into two parts each completely isolated from the other; many escape attempts took place; Many people were killed trying to cross the Wall into West Berlin. The Wall was pulled down in 1989 after mass demonstrations sparked off by Hungary opening its border with Austria which resulted in thousands of East German tourists entering Austria. The crumbling of the Wall signified the unification of Germany and a victory of the people over tyranny. Another significance of the event was that it heralded the end of the Cold War which in fact ended a couple of years later in 1991 and the weakening and dismantling of the Communist Bloc.

Front 37

Cuban Missile Crisis

Back 37

• October 1962. (Middle of the Cold War)
• CIA attempts to assassinate Fidel Castro (unsuccessful)
• Cuba feels threatened by the USA (think they will get invaded)
• USSR secretly puts missiles of Cuba
o this is bad because most of the US is in the range of these missiles.
• US Intelligence photographs the Cuban bases suspected of having missiles.
o JFK publishes these photographs to the public.
• US enacts a full naval blockade around Cuba.
• Both the US and Cuba on full military alert.
• A secret agreement between Kennedy(US) and Khrushchev(USSR) that if the Soviets removed their weapons from Cuba, US would not invade and also remove nuclear missiles in Turkey
• Treaty established, but the Cold War still continued…
o *This was the closest the US has ever gotten to a full out nuclear war.
-After the Bay of Pigs, the U.S. continued to put pressure on Cuba
-In 1962, U.S. spy planes photographed Soviet missile bases in Cuba
-JFK was urged to drop an A-Bomb on Cuba
-instead he showed to photos on T.V. and created a public outcry
-This was the closest the U.S. and Soviets ever came to war
*On the Brink of War*
-The crisis caused the U.S. to set up a naval blockade on Cuba
-Eventually the U.S. and Soviets signed treaties to encourage peaceful existence

Front 38

Lyndon B. Johnson (LBJ)

Back 38

-Became president after JFK was assassinated
-passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964
-In the 1964 election, LBJ smashed Goldwater
-this lead the republicans to become more conservative
-He advocated more government spendind (transportation, medicare)
-wanted the middle-class to benefit.
-He wanted to end the problems of “The Other America” and acknowledged that a culture
of poverty had developed
-Created a War on Poverty and aimed to create a Great Society

Front 39

“The Other America” (1962)

Back 39

• The Other America was a book written by Michael Harrington that exposed the extreme poverty of many Americans during the 1960s
o He asserted that not all Americans were focused on simply new appliances and consumerism, but that some Americans were struggling to survive
• President Johnson reads it and it, in part, serves as the driving force behind his adminsitration’s attention to the issues of poverty—his idea for the Great Society
o Establishes Medicare, Medicaid and emphasizes social security benefits to assist not only the poor, but many Americans in need
o He tries to reach out to the poor through jobs, education (head start) and Vista (like a domestic peace corps)
• Shows how the poor were invisible to average Americans, and thus makes Americans more aware of the struggles of the poor
o Poor were ignored politically
o Spatial divide—very little contact with poor because the affluent don’t see them often—don’t have to go though poor neighborhoods to get to work
o Cheap clothing means poor can dress relatively well
o Urban renewal and development is good for cities, but it pushes the poor out of their homes
o They are living in a culture of poverty as they aren’t really working to get out of it—very few opportunities and very little hope
• The book really increases awareness and sparks Johnson’s some-what successful war on poverty—which conservatives criticized as too much government intervention

Front 40

Warren Court

Back 40

• In the 1960’s the Supreme Court takes on a more important, influential role
• Warren Court issued a series of liberal decisions that had a lasting impact on American society, even up through today
o Examples:
• Series of rulings that expanded rights of those accused of crime (Miranda Rights)
• One person, one vote (restored proportionality to the electoral system)
• Banned prayer in public schools
• Outlawed state prohibition of birth control
• Basis for this decision: the right to privacy is assumed in the Constitution

Front 41

Ho Chi Minh

Back 41

• Established the communist North Vietnam (Previously a French Colony)
o Ho Chi Minh declares Independence (using many American themes)
o He offered a naval base to the US if they would leave, but US had to support France (because Minh was communist and an agreement would make the US look really bad)
• The USA begins paying the French to stay in Vietnam and fight.
o The defeat of t he French leads to the Geneva Accord… which was not supported by the US.
o This leads to the US beginning to train South Vietnamese and put Ngo Dinh Diem in power.

Front 42

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

Back 42

- gave President LBJ authorization, w/o formal declaration of war by Congress, to use military force in SE Asia (Vietnam, etc) → Johnson Administration cited it as approval/legal authority for super fast escalation of involvement in Vietnam
- Gulf of Tonkin situation = when American destroyers patrolled the Gulf of Tonkin for awhile, then said they’d been shot at by enemy ships ~ no one really knows what happened (were there even “enemy ships” present? Did they really shoot? Did the US shoot at nothing, just to make noise and give US a reason to get more involved?? Who knows.)
- LBJ was even suspicious, but began sending forces → asks to “take all necessary measures to protect American troops and prevent further aggression in Vietnam”

Front 43

“Body Counts” (Vietnam war era)

Back 43

The total number of people killed. In combat, the body count is often based on the number of confirmed kills, but occasionally only an estimate. Since the goal of the United States in the Vietnam War was not to conquer North Vietnam but rather to ensure the survival of the South Vietnamese government, measuring progress was difficult. All the contested territory was theoretically "held" already. Instead, the U.S. army used body counts to show that the U.S. was winning the war. The Army's theory was that eventually, the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese Army would lose due to attrition.

Front 44

Tet Offensive ()

Back 44

1968
-A battle, often described as the “turning point” in the Vietnam War, which had deep implications on the future of both Vietnam and America.
-The significance of the Tet Offensive is linked to the importance of the Tet holiday in Vietnam; Tet is a celebration, or holiday, observed by the Vietnamese during the turn of the lunar year. Out of respect for this observance, the custom, somewhat of an unwritten agreement, was to cease hostilities during the celebration period.
-North Vietnamese troops along with guerrilla fighters launched the Tet Offensive, a “shock and awe” style attack that forever changed the way the American people would look at the war. Not only were U.S. and South Vietnamese forces stunned by the attack being instigated during the Tet celebration, but the press and folks at home in America were also shocked and disheartened. Over two dozen cities that were supposed to be safe havens by this point were attacked, including Saigon.
-This news was especially surprising because Americans thought the North Vietnamese were all but beaten. The nightly news in America was filled with horrific images and reporters didn’t have the experience to explain it. It looked nightmarish to the average person, especially without benefit of analysis, and quickly turned many in America against the war. Many critics consider the press to have run with this new-found power. In fairness, many of those in the media probably believed they were doing a good thing by shaming the public into condemning the war. ---Unfortunately, not being experienced military analysts, many had no idea what a sudden retreat or withdrawal would entail. Still, the graphic images and sounds of the Tet Offensive were played nightly, and reporters and anchors even began adding their own opinions.

Front 45

Nixon and Vietnam

Back 45

-Nixon thought that the US could only leave S. Vietnam if they could support themselves
-He urged this policy of Vietnamization
-He bombed Cambodia in an effort to cut off Ho’s supply lines. He failed and killed
25% of the population
-This was all kept secret from the public
-Eventually the info leaked and lead to the Kent State protest
-Congress finally put an end to the Cambodia bombings
-As more troops withdrew from Vietnam, the bombing increased
-By 1971, 70% of public did not support the war
-Nixon approved the My Lai Massacre (search & destroy mission) and the Christmas
Bombings of 1972 (Worst bombing of the war)
-Finally in 1972 a treaty was signed

Front 46

Vietnamization

Back 46

• Newly elected Nixon wanted to ‘honorably leave Vietnam.”
• Vietnamization = the US government wanted to build up the strength of the South Vietnamese forces, incorporating more of them into the fighting efforts, equipping them with new weapons.
o This effort was so that the US could pull out of Vietnam when the local forces could hold their own and not get completely overthrown by the North Vietnam troops.

Front 47

Port Huron Statement

Back 47

-Written in 1962 by students at the University of Michigan
-Advocated participatory democracy and consciousness raising
-Very optimistic in its goals
-It embraced Civil Rights
-Rejected the Cold War and the bureaucratic society of the U.S.
-The statement became the manifesto of SDS
-Helped spark the free speech movement and student protests in 1964

Front 48

Students for a Democratic Society ()

Back 48

1962
• The Students for a Democratic Society mark the beginning of social activism led by students
o They write the Port Huron Statement which reflects a sense of idealism while rejecting society’s definition of power through possession and denouncing the Cold War
o They called for international peace, participatory democracy and an end to domestic discrimination
• Were rather radical
• They insist that it is not sufficient for individuals to be born into a life of comfort, that they must work towards social improvement
• Their first protests are conducted at Berkeley—begins with free speech, which is successful and rather meaningful, but then leads to students challenging everything from dress codes to grading systems etc.
• Many student leaders had experience working with the Civil Rights Movement, but white students had been kicked out when it became less open to white involvement

Front 49

Free Speech Movement (September through December 1964)

Back 49

• The movement occurred on the Berkeley campus when students became angry because they felt like they were being trained to fill corporate slots rather than contributing to the world
o This reflects a reaction against the prescribed silence of the Cold War
o Were against the paternalism of the University and wanted to exercise their right to free speech
• Wanted to discuss politics and issues beyond the campus—especially the importance of civil rights
• They emphasized the importance of being respectful of the rules of the University, even while questioning them and seeking change through activism
o Student movements become less respectful and orderly after the free speech movement
o These students were political activists, rather than members of counter culture—there is a huge difference!

Front 50

Black Panthers and Malcolm X

Back 50

• Black Panthers led by Huey Newton and Bobby Seal
o Undertook community projects to inspire black pride
o Carried weapons and used militant tactics to achieve their goals
o The rise in militance led to a decrease in white support for Civil Rights
• Malcolm X
o Powerful orator
o Advocates violence in self-defense and self-assertion
o Is assassinated by Nation of Islam
• These indicate a shift in the Civil Rights Movement

Front 51

Summer of Love

Back 51

• Summer of 1965
• “flower children” proclaiming their faith in love
• Supposed to be purity and a new society
• However, there was a lot of sexual violence that took place during this summer
• Woodstock shows the way the counterculture could work

Front 52

Detroit Riots (and Kerner Commission)

Back 52

• Detroit Riots
o 43 people died – deadliest race riot in US history
o 4 summers of race riots
o Started because of unaddressed problems in US – race, jobs, housing, equality, etc.
• Kerner Commission
o Suggested tons of government money to provide various programs in an attempt to resolve the urban crisis
o White society largely implicated in the ghetto
o American society moving toward 2 different societies – white and black

Front 53

National Organization of Women (NOW)

Back 53

- Feminist organization that worked within the existing political system to create change (i.e. they weren’t radical)
- Members = usually more of 1st branch of feminism (women’s rights, rather than women’s liberation) → older (out of college), politically active professionals
o Example: Betty Friedan (author of “The Feminine Mystique”)
- sought pay/access to jobs ~ Civil Rights Act of ’64 gives a big lift → works to end workplace inequality

Front 54

Mexican American Political Association (MAPA)

Back 54

- organization promoting interests of Mexican Americans in US
- formed: 1960 → mission: to elect Mexican American candidates to public office
- part of Mexican American (/Chicano) Movement, where many Mexican Americans became more politically active
o term “Chicano” created late ‘60s

Front 55

Betty Friedan (1960s)

Back 55

• Was a very well known woman activist who discussed issues such as equal pay for women and the Civil Rights Act
• She founded the National Organization for Women with other women and became its first president
o NOW sought to bring women into the political system and encourage them to work for women’s issues
o Wanted to make sure women were truly equal to men
• Wrote a popular and widely accepted book called The Feminine Mystique
o Talks about how women are restrained in this society—even though it was often only white women who were actually confined to this norm
• Ignores the plight of minorities—poverty and racism
o This reflects the idea the women should be fulfilled by their own femininity—some call her anti-family
• Controversial because she talks from personal experience—but she was a radical and had Communist roots
o Was in the work force—so didn’t mould to this ideal
• The Feminine Mystique helps to start the women’s movement

Front 56

Women’s Movement

Back 56

(1960s and 1970s)• This is a resurgance of activism towards women’s rights after the Civil Rights Movement splits and becomes less welcoming of whites (and also women)
o Women realize that they were disvalued even in the Civil Rights Movement and decide to work for their own rights
• This era is characterized by social change, the introduction of the pill and more women working outside the home and enrolled in colleges than ever before
• The two sides of the movement:
o 1. Women’s rights advocates
• Were older, professional women who worked through politics to achieve their goals—equal pay and other forms of equality
• Were women such as Betty Friedan
o 2. Women’s Liberationists
• Were mostly young white women and many had worked on Freedom Summer and experienced discrimination
• Was assumed that they would do “women’s work” such as cleaning etc.
• Also the Students for a Democratic Society didn’t allow women many leadership opportunities, so turned to the Women’s Movement
• Protested at the Miss America Pagent and threw items of “femininity” into trash cans—where the term “bra burners” originated
• Both branches recognized the importance of uniting to reach their goals—power in numbers
o They can have more influence politically and socially
• Get victories through Title IX, legislation that allows women to get credit cards and mortgages in their own name and almost passed the Equal Rights Amendment (see ID)

Front 57

Counter Culture ()

Back 57

1960s
The counterculture of the 1960s refers to a period between 1960 and 1973 that began in the US as a reaction against the conservative social norms of the 1950s, the political conservatism (and perceived social repression) of the Cold War period, and the US government's extensive military intervention in Vietnam. As the 1960s progressed, widespread tensions developed in American society that tended to flow along generational lines regarding the war in Vietnam, race relations, sexual mores, women's rights, traditional modes of authority, experimentation with psychedelic drugs and a predominantly materialist interpretation of the American Dream. New cultural forms emerged, including the pop music of English band the Beatles, which rapidly evolved to shape and reflect the youth culture's emphasis on change and experimentation. Types of counter culture movements: black panthers, womens rights, civil rights, free speech, anti-war, drugs, hippies, sexual revolution, feminism, environmentalism, media…

Front 58

Yippies

Back 58

(established in 1967) The Youth International Party was a group founded in 1967 by Abbie Hoffman and Jerry Rubin.
-The Yippies came to represent the violent, more reckless side to the leftist movement. They were strong advocates of street violence as well as the use of drugs.
-They believed that street violence was the only means of changing government and civil organizations. In an effort to rally militant support, they targeted followers of McCarthy and Kennedy to gain internal cohesion.
-Although the Yippies ultimately did not succeed in attaining any of their goals, they did catch the attention of the media. In Chicago on August of 1968, they announced that they were going to put acid in the town's water supply. Though they never followed through with this claim, it was, if nothing else, a sure way of getting attention. It took a massive crackdown by authorities to maintain order among such demonastrators.
-Although they captured the attention of the nation, the Yippies were destined to be short-lived. The core of their purpose rested in the creation of anarchy. When they mobilized their demonstrations, however, they did so illegally because they were not able to abtain demonstration permits. As a result, their illegal demonstrations were constantly met with police brutality.

Front 59

Weatherman

Back 59

• Split off of the SDS (students for a Democratic Society)
o These people were violent. Many Bombings
• These students were originally part of the Revolutionary Youth Movement. They split because they said revolutionary war against the US Government and capitalist system should start immediately (wiki)

Front 60

Silent Majority

Back 60

• Silent majority is when a large number of people in a country do not express their opinions publically.
o In the 1968 Election (Nixon v Wallace)
• Nixon’s “law and order” motto appealed to the silent majority… he won the election.
• Nixon mentioned these people as those who did not join anti-Vietnam protests. –overshadowed by the vocal minority.

Front 61

Jerry Falwell

Back 61

• There is a shift in religion toward evangelical churches in the 60’s
• A rise in the popularity of televangelists
o Jerry Falwell – televangelist whose main message was:
• Christians obliged to oppose those who go against the will of God
o Falwell and others referred to as the religious right
• Very effective grassroots campaign
• Most significant mass movement in the U.S. since Civil Rights

Front 62

Ping Pong Diplomacy

Back 62

1970s
• Thawing of tensions – U.S. and China ping-pong teams play each other
• Nixon becomes the first president to go to China
• He could do this with little political criticism because he was known to be a staunch anti-communist

Front 63

Plumbers

Back 63

- Nixon’s secret spies in the White House, supposed to plug intelligence leaks (get it? Plumbers fix leaks!) in US gov’t relating to Vietnam (like Pentagon Papers)
- Caught breaking into DNC HQ at Watergate Hotel in DC → arrested ⇒ Watergate scandal/cover-up → Nixon’s resignation
- Also work to help re-elect Nixon

Front 64

Pentagon Papers

Back 64

- nickname for a top-secret 7000pg Department of Defense document about US involvement in Vietnam, leaked to the NY Times to publish in 1971, by State Department officer Daniel Ellsburg
o Ellsburg = 1st target of Plumbers
- showed exactly what went down in Vietnam (though it stopped before Nixon’s administration) → showed how manipulative/lying both JFK and LBJ’s administrations were
- Interestingly, 75% of American population supported Nixon’s idea that Pentagon Papers should not have been released to public

Front 65

Watergate Scandal

Back 65

-In 1972, five of Nixon’s Plumbers broke into the Democratic office at the Watergate
Hotel in D.C.
-They were trying to fix their wire taps
-Nixon told the FBI and the CIA not to investigate, but they did so anyway.
-During the Watergate trial, Nixon said that he would not cooperate and he
claimed executive immunity.
-A year later, Nixon was finally investigated and his secret tapes were exposed
-By 1974, the final extent of the cover-up was revealed
-tapes finally handed over, some were still missing
*The scandal further added to the wave of public cynicism towards the government and
increased distrust in Nixon and the presidency*

-Rather than face impeachment, Nixon resigned and Ford became Prez.

Front 66

CREEP

Back 66

(around 1972 [Watergate])
The Committee to Re-elect the President. A Nixon White House fundraising organization which was found to have employed money laundering and hush funds, and was involved in the Watergate Scandal. CREEP funds, a sum of $500,000 U.S. dollars, were used to pay legal expenses for the five Watergate burglars after their indictment in September 1972. The link of the break-in back to the White House and the President's campaign fundraising committee turned the burglary into an explosive political scandal. The burglars, as well as G. Gordon Liddy, E. Howard Hunt, and John Mitchell, went to prison over the break-in and their efforts to cover it up, along with other members of the Nixon Administration. One illegal action that CREEP committed was breaking into the office of the psychiatrist of Pentagon Papers leaker Daniel Ellsberg in an attempt to find material to discredit Ellsberg. The leak of the Pentagon Papers, military records about the Vietnam War, helped sway American sentiment towards opposing the war.

Front 67

Arab Oil Embargo ()

Back 67

On October 16, 1973, Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) cut production of oil and placed an embargo on shipments of crude oil to the West, with the United States and the Netherlands specifically targeted. The Netherlands had supplied arms to Israel and allowed the Americans to use Dutch airfields for supply runs to Israel. Also imposed was a boycott of Israel and price increases. Since oil demand falls little with price rises, prices had to rise dramatically to reduce demand to the new lower level of supply. Anticipating this, the market price for oil immediately rose substantially. A world financial system already under pressure from the breakdown of the Bretton Woods agreement was set on a path of a series of recessions and high inflation that persisted until the early 1980s, and elevated oil prices persisted until 1986.
-The effects of the embargo were immediate. OPEC forced the oil companies to increase payments drastically. The price of oil quadrupled by 1974 to nearly US$12 per barrel.
-In the US, the retail price of a gallon of gasoline rose from a national average of 38.5 cents in May 1973 to 55.1 cents in June 1974. Meanwhile, New York Stock Exchange shares lost $97 billion in value in six weeks. With the onset of the embargo, U.S. imports of oil from the Arab countries dropped from 1.2 million barrels (190,000 m³) per day to 19,000 barrels (3,000 m³). Daily consumption dropped by 6.1% from September to February, and by 7% during summer of 1974, as the United States suffered its first fuel shortage since the Second World War.
-Within a few months the crisis eased. The embargo was lifted in March 1974 after negotiations at the Washington Oil Summit, but the effects of the energy crisis lingered on throughout the 1970s. The price of energy continued increasing in the following year, amid the weakening competitive position of the dollar in world markets.
-Drivers of vehicles with license plates having an odd number as the last digit (or a vanity license plate) were allowed to purchase gasoline for their cars only on odd-numbered days of the month, while drivers of vehicles with even-numbered license plates were allowed to purchase fuel only on even-numbered days.
-The U.S. government response to the embargo was quick but of limited effectiveness. A National Maximum Speed Limit of 55 mph was imposed through the Emergency Highway Energy Conservation Act to help reduce consumption.

Front 68

Camp David Accords

Back 68

• September 1978 (Jimmy Carter in office)
• A peace treaty between Israel and Egypt, negotiated at Camp David (president vacation house)
o Agreements: This was a mutual recognition of each country by the other(important because Egypt became the 1st country to acknowledge Israel as an actual country), end of the Arab-Israeli War, the removal of Israelis in the captured Sinai Peninsula, and free passage of Israeli ships through the Suez canal

Front 69

Iran Hostage Crisis

Back 69

• A diplomatic crisis between Iran and the US when 52 diplomats were held hostage for 444 days in Nov. 1979- Jan 1981
o This began because of a revolution in Iran in 1979 where the Shah (with a brutal police force but supported by the USA) was exiled because he offended Islamic Life. Khomeini replaces the old Shah (he was exiled by the Shah 15yrs earlier). Khomeini calls the US the “great satan.”
• The old, exiled Shah travels to the US for cancer treatment. This upsets Khomeini, who continues to denounce the US government.
• The American Embassy in Iran is seized by fundamental students in Tehran.
o The fundamentalists released the women and African Americans (fellow oppressed people) and also one person diagnosed with MS. The fundamentalists demanded the Shah be sent back to Iran for trial.
o After 6 months, Carter attempted to rescue the diplomats.
• However, his mission fails, and 8 rescuers die in the desert.
• Carter lost to Reagan in the following election, but was able to negotiate the release of the hostages first.

Front 70

Roe v. Wade ()

Back 70

1973
• A supreme court decision that said that abortion is legal through the first trimester, based on the fact that it is an issue of privacy
o Despite the ruling, some states still limited access to birth control
• Most states were moving towards legalizing abortion, but this decision makes it a national law
• This leads to a huge backlash and anti-abortion movement to, as they would believe, undo this blow to moral society
o Have gotten some restrictions on abortion in the past 25 years
• They Hyde Amendment is passed which outlaws federal money to be granted for abortions, which severely limits poor women’s access
o The issue assumes the jargon of “pro life” and “pro choice”

Front 71

Iran Contra Affair

Back 71

• Contras
o Leftist group that was against the right government supported by Reagan
o Congress says U.S. cannot support them
• Iran Contra Affair
o Americans had been taken hostage in Lebanon one by one
o U.S. makes a deal with Iran
• U.S. sells Iran arms and Iran uses its influence to free hostages
• Money from the sales goes to support the Contras
• Highly illegal
• No one is aware that this is going on
o Oliver North takes the blame
• Reagan never takes responsibility

Front 72

School Busing

Back 72

• This was when, in an attempt to completely desegregate schools, students were assigned to schools by race, not proximity. (this was done because many school districts were still almost 100% black/white due to mostly segregated neighborhoods)
• Mny white families who did not want their children bused to far locations either moved to the predominantly white suburbs or enrolled their children in parochial/private schools.

Front 73

Rust Belt and Sun Belt

Back 73

• Rust belt = areas with mostly industrial jobs
• Sunbelt= southern border of the US (California to Florida)
• Many people from the rust belt began moving to the sunbelt when the steel industry and other industrial occupations were in decline. Also, the sunbelt is a place where most immigrants/migrants and retirees go.

Front 74

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)

Back 74

- can’t deny equality of rights based on sex
- 1972: Passed both houses of Congress → 38 states would have had to pass it; only 34 did by 197 → not all women supported it
o Ex: Phyllis Schlaffly
- critics: “What would it have actually changed?” → pro: it’d have been symbolic, rather than really legislative, change
- Even though Women’s Movement lost ERA, lives of women weren’t back to how they were in the ’50s

Front 75

Phyllis Schlaffly

Back 75

- Against ERA
- Highly educated woman who, in a speech, thanked her husband for “letting me be here tonight”
- Called for average role of women to be homemakers; said ERA took away right of women to be mothers (let’s be honest—totally ridiculous claim)

Front 76

Stonewall Riots ()

Back 76

1969 The Stonewall Riots were a series of violent conflicts between LGBT people and NYC police that began during this particular raid, and lasted several days. They were centered at the Stonewall Inn and served as milestone for the worldwide gay rights movement, as gay, lesbian and transgender people had never before acted together in such large numbers to forcibly resist police harassment directed towards their community. Many also credit the events as igniting a movement to celebrate gay pride. Early in the morning on June 28, 1969, police raided the Stonewall Inn, a bar in Greenwich Village where gay people frequently gathered to socialize. Because raids had occurred at the Stonewall Inn in the past, managers usually knew what to expect when a raid was about to occur. Eight police entered the bar with a warrant authorizing a search for illegal sales of alcohol. Of the eight police, only one was dressed in his uniform. When the police officers went inside the bar, the angry clients blockaded the Inn and then torched it. The police questioned the customers and made many of them show identification. Many were escorted out of the bar, and some were even arrested. Several of the rioters were severely beaten by the police. While the police loaded arrested patrons into the police van, the existing crowd responded with catcalls and then, eventually erupted into violence. Over the course of five days, the crowd of 400 protesters continued throwing bottles and lighting fires around the Inn. Police attempted to capture some of the violent rioters. If the rioters did not act fast enough, they were pushed and shoved and even clubbed to the ground by officers. Protesters in the crowd began to scream "Gay Power" and some activists dressed as drag queens.

Front 77

Bakke vs. UC Board of Regents ()

Back 77

1978 In the mid 1970's Allan Bakke, a white graduate student, protested his inability to enter medical school at the University of California at Davis. He argued that affirmative action programs prevented him from entering and were denying him his rights under the 13th and 14th amendments of the Constitution. It was during the 1970's that there were protests of "reverse discrimination" or giving of preference to minorities over "whites" in many facets of life. The court case reached the Supreme Court and was settled by a split 5-4 decision in favor of Bakke. The court said racial quaotas must be eliminated but as Supreme court Justice Lewis Powell commented the " ..race can be a factor but only one of many to achieve a balance." In other words race could not be a decisive factor in admitting or excluding applicants. Affirmative action policies continued but was further defined.

Front 78

Brown vs. Board of Education

Back 78

• 5 cases bundled together, Kansas came first
• Evidence was heard twice
• Earl Warren new chief justice by the time the second hearing was finished in 1953
o Warren led the Supreme Court through 15 years of very liberal decision starting with Brown vs. Board of Education
o Agreed with Thurgood Marshall: one can only accept segregation if one thinks that African Americans are inferior
o Ruling: Segregation is unconstitutional
• Opinion – history of topic provided inconclusive results because the 14th amendment didn’t say much
• Brown 2 decision – action had to be taken on the decision “with all deliberate speed”
o This wording allowed for delays in the desegregation of schools

Front 79

Southern Manifesto

Back 79

• Written in 1956 by legislators in Congress who OPPOSED racial integration in public places.
o mostly angry southerners
o they were trying to blame outsiders for their troubles
• They wanted to reverse the Supreme Court Decision of Brown vs. Board of Education (a 9-0 unanimous vote for integration in public schools)
• This lead to Massive Resistance.
o August 1956: Virginia threatened to close any schools that would integrate
o January 1959: end of formal massive resistance
• September 1957: In Little Rock, AK-9 black students attend an ‘integrated’ high school. The Arkansas National Guard deployed by the segregationist governor to prevent students from entering. In response, Eisenhower sends in Federal Troops to safely escort students inside the school—couldn’t let a state act in such defiance of a federal law

Southern Manifesto
- READING FOR 3/31
- Signed by almost all Southern representatives and senators
- In response to Supreme Court’s decision in Brown 2 saying “schools must desegregate with all deliberate speed” (after NAACP was like, yo Supreme Court, you’re definitely holding off on the implementation of integration...?!) → this document wants to reverse unanimous Supreme Court decision cuz it was a “breach of constitutional rights”
- Says states have a right to stand up for themselves
- Says “separate but equal” starts in the North; blames NAACP lawyers

Front 80

SNCC, SCLC, CORE

Back 80

• SNCC= Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
o Created by Ella Baker
o led many sit-ins and freedom rides
• SCLC= Southern Christian Leadership Conference
o led by Martin Luther King Jr.
o emphasized Christianity and morality as reasons for civil rights
• CORE= Congress of Racial Equality
o often created crises to publicize racial inequalities
o led and organized freedom summer (voter registration etc.)

Front 81

Freedom Rides/Sit Ins

Back 81

-Started in Montgomery when Rosa Parks was arrested
-The Montgomery Bus Boycott was lead by Martin Luther King Jr. and the
Southern Christian Leadership Committee (SCLC)
-lasted for almost 13 months
-In Greensboro, NC, college students performed sit ins in segregated stores
-These sit ins eventually lead to lunch counters across the South to be
desegregated
-Freedom Rides began in 1961
-Lead by members of CORE (Congress of Racial Equality)
-Planned to ride busses from Washington D.C. to New Orleans
-During bus stops CORE members were frequently attacked
-The attacks caused JFK to become involved
-The freedom rides exposed to the rest of the American public the brutal
racism that existed in the South and the inhumane treatment of
African Americans.
*They created a National Crisis*

Front 82

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Back 82

-After JFK’s assassination
-LBJ used the president’s death to push the Act through congress in memory of
JFK
-The act Act banned all discrimination in public places
-Also included provisions for women’s workers rights
*It did nothing to address voting rights or economic issues for African
Americans*