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145 Cards in this Set
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Core topics: chapter 1-7 |
1. Were the peace treaties of 1919- 23 fair? 2. To what extent was the league of nations a success? 7. Why did the events of the Gulf matter, c. 1970- 2000? 3. Why had international peace collapsed by 1939? 4. Who was to blame for the cold war 5. How effectively did the USA contain the spread of communism |
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Chapter 1: were the peace treaties of 1919- 23 fair? |
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What were the aims and motives of the big three at Versailles? |
Georges Clemenceau (prime minister of France) wanted to cripple/ get revenge on Germany. . Wanted Rhineland are to be independent state so France did not share a border with Germany . Wanted very high reparations (definite figure to be named in treaty) . Wanted permanent disarmament |
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Woodrow Wilson (President of America) wanted a "fair and lasting peace" . Made a 14 point plan that was designed to stop war .Some of the more prominent points were: - No more secret treaties - Removal of economic trade barriers - Reduction of all armaments in all countries - Free navigation of the seas - Self- determinations (allowing national groups to rule themselves) |
Lloyd George (Prime minister of Britain) wanted to be harsh on Germany until 1919 when he decided he wanted Justice and not to be overly harsh. . Didn't want reparations to be too high because of effect on British economy . Didn't want to weaken Germany too much because it would be and inadequate barrier against communism .Didn't want harsh treaty because Germany may restart war . Didn't want Rhineland to go because that is where a lot of German industry was |
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What were the main terms of the Treaty of Versailles? |
War guilt Clause (Article 231) - Germany had to accept total responsibility for starting the war |
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Reparations - Germany had to accept any reparations that were asked to be paid (6.6 billion which was decided at the Reparations Commission) |
Disarmament - this was a restriction on their military forces. Germany were required to: - Restrict German army to 100,000 men - Get rid of armoured vehicles/ heavy artillery - Rhineland was to be demilitarised - The navy was restricted to 6 battleships - No airforce or submraines |
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Territory - German overseas territory and colonies were taken away |
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Why did all the victors not get everything they wanted? |
France didn't get everything they wanted because they wanted to be harsh, revengeful and severely weaken Germany so that it could not attack France for a third time. This is why they wanted Germany to be demilitarised, have heavy reparations and make Rhineland an independent state. |
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America didn't get everything it wanted because Wilson was an idealist and many of his 14 points were unrealistic. Wilson also didn't want to severely punish Germany. Did not get Freedom of seas and also did not achieve |
Britain was probably the most happy out of the allies because his ideal punishments were in the middle ground of France and America. He wanted the European economy to be revived and that mainly happened. |
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What parts of the Treaty of Versailles satisfied each of the Big Three? |
Clemenceau: - Rhineland was demilitarised - Relatively high reparations - Restriction of the army to 100,000 Wilson: - League of Nations - Self determination - Happy that Rhineland was not independent
Lloyd George: - Got the German colonies - Treaty was no considered overly harsh |
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What was the impact of the peace treaty on Germany up to 1923? |
Too harsh: They were deprived of resources that they needed to pay reparations |
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Diktat: (dictated peace) Germany was excluded from treaty negotiations and were forced to sign (they were allowed to express comment but made little change other than plebiscite in Upper Silesia)
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War guilt clause: Article 231 was used to establish legal means for Germany to pay reparations (even though it could have been argues Russia first mobilised in 1914)
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Disarmament: Germany claimed that 100,000 men was not enough to defend boarders and deal with uprisings |
Wilson's 14 points: Germany though that the treaty was signed applying to Wilson's 14 points. The 14 points asked for disarmament of all countries but only Germany disarmed. There was also no mention of war guilt or reparations in the 14 points. Germany was also not allowed to join the League of Nations. |
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What was the economic impact of the Treaty of Versailles? |
- Germany was required to pay 6.6 billion (figure decided by reparations commission in 1921) - High unemployment from all the soldiers that were disbanded - High inflation tuned to hyper inflation because of the lost revenue and Germany printing more money - Germany was unable to pay the second instalment of reparations in 1922 |
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What was the political impact of the Treaty of Versailles? |
- Left-wing extremists exploited the unpopularity of the Weimar Government by promoting rebellions such as the Ruhr in march 1920 - Right-wing extremists carried out assassinations on high ranking government ministers, such as Walter Rathenau who was a foreign minister - Many members of the army who were cut because of the clauses of the Treaty joined Freikorps which was an unofficial anti- communist group |
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What were the terms of the other peace treaties? (Treaty of Saint Germain, Treaty of Trianon, Treaty of Neuilly, Treaty of Sevres, Treat if Lausanne) |
Austria: Treaty of Saint Germain (10 september 1919) - Republic of Austria had to accept the breakup of the Austro- Hungarian empire - Austria had to recognise the independence of Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Poland - Territory from the former empire was transferred to Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Poland, Italy and Romania - Union between Austria and Germany was forbidden (Austria was now a landlocked nation) |
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Bulgaria: Treaty of Neuilly (27 november 1919) - Bulgaria had to recognise independence of Czechoslovakia - Bulgaria lost territory to Greece, Yugoslavia and Romania |
Hungary: Treaty of Trianon (4 June 1920) - Hungary had to accept the break up of the Austro- Hungarian empire- Hungary had to recognise independence of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia - Territory from former empire was transferred to Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Romania (70% of territory and one third of population lost. Sea ports also taken away and was now landlocked) |
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Turkey: Treaty of Sèvres (10 August 1920) - Turkey had to recognise the independence of Hejaz and Armenia - Turkey lost provinces in middle east to Britain and France - Turkey lost territory to Greece and Italy - The Dardanelles Strait was to become an international waterway (Treaty was renegotiated because Turkey drove Greeks out of Smyrna) |
Turkey: Treaty if Lausanne (24 July 1923) - Turkey confirmed loss of provinces to Middle East - Turkey received back most of European territory -The Dardanelles Strait was returned to Turkish sovereignty - Restrictions on armed forced were removed - Turkey was no longer forced to pay reperations |
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Chapter 2: To what extent was the league of nations a success?
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What were the main aims of the League of Nations? |
- Maintain world peace (collective security) - Disarmament - Enforce the Treaty of Versailles - Promote international cooperation over political and economic issues |
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What were the key organs to the League? |
Council: - Met 4 or 5 times a year and in times of crisis - Executive body of the league - 1920 permanent members were Britain, France, Italy and Japan - 1926 Germany became a permanent member Assembly: - Met once a year - Every member of League had one vote - Considered matters of general policy Secretariat: - The civil service of the League - Performed the administrative and financial work (organising conferences etc) |
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What were the independent organisations associated with the League? |
Permanent Court of Justice: - Based in the Hague - Provided legal advice to the Council - Offered arbitration services to countries in dispute International Labour Organisation: - Based in Geneva - Had representatives of governments, employers and workers - Purpose was to promote good working practices with regards to issues like (working hours, women's rights, child labour etc) |
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What were agencies, committees and commissions that the League established? |
Mandates Commission - Supervised administration of Turkey's and Germany's former colonies Danzig Commission - Direct League control over former German city Minorities Commission - Bring about improvement in treatment of racial minorities Intellectual Cooperation Organisation - Establish contacts between academics artists and writers Special Committee for Drug Traffic - Campaign to reduce drug smuggling/ misuse |
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How far did weakness in the League's organisations make failure inevitable? |
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How did membership affect the League? |
The Assembly and Council: - Would been more effective if they represented all major countries in the world USA: -America refused to join the League because most of Senate though they it would drag America into future conflict - This deprived the League of the world's most wealthy and influential country - Leagues ability to take action against aggressive countries would be reduced |
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Germany: - Not allowed to join League until it showed peaceful intentions - Made League look like a club for victors - Allowed to join in 1926 - Adolf Hitler pulled them out in 1933 Soviet Russia: - Not invited to join the League because of its communist ways and need to overthrow capitalism - Joined League in 1934 - Expelled after invasion of Finland in 1939 |
Japan: - One of original member but left in 1933 when it received criticism for invading Manchuria Italy: - Original member but left in 1937 due to imposition of sanctions after invasion of Abyssinia Britain and France: - Only major members throughout existence - Both weakened by first world war - Britain concerned about maintaining empire - France concerned about increasing security against Germany - Therefore League came in second place - Britain and France had their own agendas |
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What was collective security? |
Intended means by which the league was to maintain peace |
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What were the three stages of collective security? |
Moral disapproval: - After Council has agreed they would tell aggressor to stop Economic sanctions: - If the aggressor does not listen the League could order other countries to stop trade with the aggressor Military sanctions: - As a last resort if the aggressor does not listen they can impose military sanctions (send army to assist victim of aggressor) |
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How did Lack of an army effect the League? |
- Means that the League did not have standing forces hat it could call upon if it wished to impose military sanction - Members of the League would be asked to contribute towards military force and this would take time and there was no guarantee that an appropriate army would be assembled - This uncertainty meant that military sanctions were never taken seriously |
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How did Unanimous decisions effect the League? |
- This meant that all decisions made had to be unanimous - If one person voted against a decision even though there was an overwhelming majority then the action would not be able to take place - This made it very difficult to take decisive action against an aggressive country |
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How successful was the League of Nations on the 1920's? |
What were the Successes and failures of the League? |
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Successes: . Aaland Islands 1921 . Upper Silesia 1921 . Mosul 1924 . Greece v Bulgaria 1925 |
Failures: . Teschen 1919 . Vilna 1920 . Ruhr 1923 . Corfu 1923 |
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Successes of the League |
Aaland Islands 1921
- Finland and Sweden claimed that they both wanted the Aaland Islands - Most islanders wanted to be ruled by Sweden - League investigated and awarded the island to Finland - Sweden accepted the judgement |
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Upper Silesia 1921 - Valuable industrial area on the boarder between Germany and Poland - Granted to Poland but Germans protested and plebiscite was held - Overall results favoured Germany but in some rural parts the clear majority wanted Poland - After riots and protests the League gave Easter Upper Silesia to Poland and Western Upper Silesia to Germany - Both Germany and Poland accepted |
Mosul 1924 - Turkey claimed the Kurdish populated province of Mosul which was part of the British- mandated territory of Iraq - League investigated and made award in favour of Iraq - Turkey accepted |
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Bulgaria 1925 - Greece was ordered to pay 45 000 Pounds compensation to Bulgaria after its invasion of Bulgarian territory - This was judged as an over the top response to a shooting on the border incident that had killed a Greek sentry - Greece accepted the ruling but felt it was unfair because Italy ha been treated more generously in similar circumstances |
Failures of the League |
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Vilna 1920 - Vilna was a largely Polish populated capital of the new state Lithuania - Polish army seized the city in 1920 and Lithuania made an appeal to the League - League asked the Polish troops to leave while a plebiscite was made but they refused - Matter was passed to conference of ambassadors who awarded Vilna to Poland |
Occupation of the Ruhr 1923 - Germany could not pay its reparations in 1922 - France, supported by Belgium ordered their troops to occupy Ruhr in January 1923 - This action showed that that League was a victors club which only pursued the victor's interests |
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Corfu Incident 1923 - Italian general and staff had been killed patrolling part of a boarder - Mussolini demanded 50 million lira as well as execution of assassins - Greece was unable to locate them so Mussolini resorted to invading Corfu in 1923 - Greece appealed to League and they condemned the action until Mussolini insisted it should be passed to the conference of ambassadors - Because of Italy's bullying tactics Greece had to pay excessive amounts in reparations |
Agreements made outside the League - France was most concerned about its security and looked to making mutual assistance pacts with countries like Czechoslovakia and Poland - Pacts designed to give France added protection - The Locarno Treaties in 1925 - The Kellogg- Briand Pact of 1928 |
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What was the Geneva Protocol? |
- As a result of the weaknesses exposed by the Corfu incident the British and French devised the Geneva Protocol - Drafted in 1924 by French and British Prime ministers - Stated that League members were required to agree to the settling of disputes by the Permanent Court of International Justice - Decision backed by economic and Military power of all members - If protocol was adopted it would have strengthened League - Change in British government stopped this scheme because they refused to approve it |
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What were the Locarno Treaties? |
- Signed in 1925 - First time since 1918 Germany was treated the same as all other European powers - Treaty provided guarantees for the frontiers of north- eastern Europe and confirmed demilitarised status if Rhineland - However they said nothing about frontiers of eastern Europe |
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What was the Kellogg- Briand Pact? |
- Made in 1927 - France and America signed a pact renouncing war - By 1928 it had 65 countries involved - Pact amounted to no more than an international statement of good intentions |
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How successful was the work of the League agencies? |
Refugee Organisation - Made to rehabilitate former WW1 prisoners-of war stranded in places like France, Soviet Russia, Poland Germany and Turkey - 250,000 Russians in German and French camps - 300,000 Germans and Austro Hungarians in Soviet Russia - 1,000,000 homeless Greeks - Fridtjof Nansen was in charge of this agency - Worked with Red Cross and helped 425,000 people find new homes between 1920-22 - This organisation received nothing but praise |
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Health Organisation - Under leadership of Ludwig Rajchman this is regarded as one of the most successful of the League agencies - Worked with non member countries as well - Helped Russia prevent typhus epidemic in Siberia by organising public education - Also helped reduce leprosy and campaign to exterminate mosquitos to reduce malaria and yellow fever - Developed vaccines for diseases like tetanus, tuberculosis and diphtheria - After demise of League it became the World Health Organisation which demonstrated its success |
Economic and Financial Organisation - Many countries after the war faced economic problems - For example Austria was in danger of financial collapse - League devised a plan to stabilise the currency by controlling interest rates, issuing of credit and circulation of banknotes - Austria also given loan - As a result trade was revived, unemployment, went down and budget was balanced - Other programmes were devised for Hungary, Greece and Bulgaria |
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International Labour Organisation - Albert Thomas in 1920s achieved some success in bringing about general improvement in working conditions - Wanted 48h working week, 8h working day, right to join trade unions and 15 to be minimum employment age - Readiness to implement recommendations in different countries was patchy - For example school leaving age in Britain was not raised to 15 until after WW2 |
Slavery Commission - Idea was to completely stamp out slavery - Successes includes freeing 200,000 slaves in Sierra Leone and reduction of death rate of african workers on Tanganyikan railway from 50% to 4% - Countries like Iraq, Jordan and Nepal abolished slaver all together - Slave trading was still acknowledged in 1937 and 'White slave' traffic is still a problem in the 21st century |
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Disarmament commission - Made most disappointing progress because by the end of 1920 only the defeated powers had disarmed even though all countries were supposed to - Minor success in Washington Naval Conference 1921 where there was naval limitations for France, USA, Britain and Japan - League could not even organise disarmament conference before 1932 because of technicalities |
Overall judgement on League agencies - All achieved some success or were involved in ongoing research, publicity and persuasion - Often too form of questionnaires or requests for reports - These persistent methods lead to reduced drug trading, black slaver and white slavery |
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How far did the Depression make the work of the League more difficult? |
- In October 1929 the Wall Street Crash was the start of a worldwide economic recession - Production and trade over the next three years plummeted and these was a high rise in unemployment - Every capitalist country in the world was affected |
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How did the Depression effect the world? |
Collective security - Depression reduced the amount if League members to impose economic sanctions - World markets were shrinking and countries wanted to maintain existing trade |
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Extremist parties - Depression bought extremist power in Germany (Hitler) who wanted to destroy the Versailles settlement - Before Wall Street Crash the Nazis were polling less than 3% - As the recession deepened the Nazis picked up support |
Militarism in Japan - Japanese army knew that Japan's survival depended on overseas trade - In 1931 it decided to take law into its own hands |
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Expenditure cuts - Depression put pressure on governments to cut expenditure to balance the books - Serious rearmament had to be delayed - League members lacked the military needed to deal with aggressors |
Pressure to find new markets - Depression put pressure on countries to find new sources of raw materials - This could be done through colonisation of new territories - This was likely to involve war |
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How Successful was the League in the 1930s? |
Successes: - Continuation of the agencies, committees and commissions - For example the Saar Commission which lead to the plebiscite which then returned the region to Germany in Jan 1935 - Resolution of boarder disputes in South America |
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Failures: - Japanese invasion of Manchuria - Failure of the disarmament conference - Italian invasion of Abyssinia - League losing three permanent members (Japan, Germany and Italy) |
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Why did Japan invade Manchuria? |
Background: - Manchuria was part of north-east China with southern frontier bordering Korea and was rich in raw materials and agricultural land - Japanese in control of Korea since 1905 with trading rights extending into Manchuria - Japanese guards were allowed along the South Manchurian railway - Purpose of guards was to maintain order in a chaotic area to protect Japanese businesses |
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Japan's economic position: - During depression countries were not buying from Japan because they only sold luxury items like silk - Japan relied on imports for food but could not afford to import food due to no one buying silk - Manchuria answered Japan's problems - Could provide food, raw materials, market for Japanese exports and land for extra Japanese population |
Mukden Railway Incident: - Japan staged an incident where they used the excuse of Chinese Bandits to launch an invasion in the local area - China appealed to the League and the Japanese said they would withdraw - Soon clear that civilian government was not in control and the Japanese army then occupied the whole province |
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Response of League: - European powers didn't want to reduce trade with Far East because American firms could take over lost business - Military sanctions were less appealing because they would have to send military force to other side of world with uncertain success - Britain and France had colonies in Far East like Hong Kong and Singapore and feared that sanctions might provoke Japanese attack |
Lytton Commission: - Lytton lead inquiry into Manchuria with 4 man team and spent 6 weeks in Manchuria - Came to conclusion that invasion was not justified - Feb 1933 findings were accepted 42 - 1 - Japan terminated membership with the League |
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Why League failed: - Didn't act quickly enough - Did not have Soviet Russia or America so League could not call upon nearby military forces - Economic sanctions would not be put in place because of depression |
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Why did the World disarmament conference fail? |
Background: -Before WW1 there was an arms race and this was thought to be be a big part of why the war started - After 1918 it was believed that disarmament was one of the main things needed for world peace - Disarmament Conference to meet in Geneva between 1932- 34 |
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Why members of the conference failed to agree: - France, Poland and Czechoslovakia were worried about their future defensive security in event if attack by Germany - They did not want to place trust in collective security system that had already proven to have flaws - France was only willing to disarm if USA and Britain gave additional guarantees which they did not want to do |
Why members of the conference failed to agree 2: - Hitler who had no intention of disarming exploited these fears and claimed that France was not serious about disarmament - Germany then withdrew from the conference and then later on withdrew from the league - With the exit of Japan from the league it soon became clear that disarmament was not going to happen - In 1935 Hitler started rearming again with Japanese and Italian rearmament following closely behind |
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Did Italy's invasion of Abyssinia destroy the League? |
Background: - Abyssinia was last remaining independent state in Africa - Was relatively low in economic value - Located between Italy's other territories in East Africa (Somaliland and Eritrea) - 1896 Italy defeated in failed attempt to conquer Abyssinia - Ever since then Italians set upon revenge - Mussolini, to boost popularity decided that an invasion of Abyssinia was a low riskway to do so |
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The Invasion: - After boarder incident in Dec 1934 Mussolini began to build up italian forces - Two pronged Italian attack of 250,000 men launched without formal declaration of war |
Response of the League: - League imposed economic sanctions but they didn't have much of an effect because coal and oil had been excluded from the list - Suez Canal was kept open for fear of possible Italian Naval attacks - Dec 1935 British and French made a secret celled Hoare- Laval Pact that stated Italy would receive 2/3 of Abyssinia of they stopped the fighting - Mussolini indicated he would accept this deal until it was leaked to the French press and the plan had to be abandoned - Abyssinia capital captured in May 1936 and sanctions lifted in July |
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Reason for Leagues failure to give help: - France and Britain were pursuing contradictory objectives - Felt they needed to support League but also were fearful of offending Italy to extent that they would become ally with Germany -The second objective was regarded as more important - By pursuing two different objectives at the same time Britain and France got nothing - League dealt a death blow and Italy made common cause with Germany and left League in 1937 |
How Abyssinia affected League's work after 1936: - Committees and commissions continued the League was ignored on most issues of foreign policy - League met in April 1946 for the last time and was not summoned at any point in WW2 or even much before that - Permanent Court of International Justice and International Labour Organisation were built into the United Nations - Although the League failed the central idea of collective security and more general idea of working together to solve the world's problems continues to attract support f leading politicians and statesmen |
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Chapter 7: Why did the events in the gulf matter 1970- 2000? |
Why was Saddam Hussein able to come to power in Iraq? |
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What were the three reasons for Saddam Hussein's rise to power? |
Influence of Khairallah Tulfah: - If it wasn't for him Saddam would have spent his life as an Iraqi peasant -Khairallah instilled a sense of arab nationalism which opposed western interference in Iraqi affairs - He also made sure that Saddam had good primary education - Saddam aimed to enter the Baghdad military academy but he failed the entrance exam - Inspired by his uncle's political views he joined the Baath party in 1957 |
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Early political activity: - After joining the Baath party in 1957 he became involved in a variety of anti- government activities such as organising thugs to beat up political opponents - In Oct 1958 Saddam showed his loyalty to Khairallah by assassinating a local government official in Tikrit - He soon demonstrated he was ruthless which is why he was chosen to participate in an attempted assassination of the Iraqi ruler - Attempt in Oct 1959 failed and President Qassen died in Feb 1963 - Baath party took over |
Building up a power base 1: - New Prime minister (Ahmed Hassan Al-Bakr) was from Tikrit and a kinsmen - Saddam joined his faction and proved that he was indesposable - Baathists were soon put out of power as president lost patience with fighting breaking out in party - These events played to Saddam's hands as other parts of the party were discredited - Saddam started to rise within the party and won the formers trust and confidence |
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Building up a power base 2: - In Feb 1964 he was awarded for his loyalty by becoming a member of the regional command (decision making body of the party) - As a prominent Baath party politician he was soon put in charge of the military organisation - He plotted a coup against president Arif but the plans were uncovered and he spent 2 years in jail before escaping in 1966 |
July revolution 1968: - Saddam's new coup to overthrow Arif ended up bloodless - Arif was flown back to London and Bakr became president - Saddam was made deputy chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) which was now the main decision making body of the party - After President Bakr, Saddam was the most important person in government circles |
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Presidency: - Saddam stuck as Bakr's right hand man - As Bakr began to grow older and acquire an increasing amount of health problems Saddam became President at the age of 42 in 1979 |
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What was the nature of Saddam Hussein's rule in Iraq? |
- He ruled as a dictator after coming to power - Modelled his regime on Joseph Stalin who ruled Soviet Russia |
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Purges and Terror: - Saddam wanted to purge the Baath party of people who questioned his transition to power - July 1979 Mashhadi (RCC's Secretary general) was forced o deliver a fabricated confession saying that he committed crimes against the state - 66 alleged co- conspirators were lead out of the hall - A special court was set up and 55 were found guilty and 33 of these were put in prison and 22 were put to death - Mushhadi was later killed - Purges continued beyond this even and hundreds of people in Baath military were purged( many killed) |
Waging war on his own people: - Saddam wanted to unify the country - The Kurds (20% population) wanted independence and the Shiites (60% population) were hostile to his regime - Thousands were killed using mustard gas or cyanide - Many were displaced, killed, put in concentration camps or fled to other countries - Marsh arabs were killed and population went form 250,000 to around 30,000 |
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Personality Cult: - Saddam projected himself as an all- powerful, father style leader to the nation - Made permanent exhibition about himself, life story in newspapers and magazines, made an autobiographical film about his early life, portraits were put up in street corners and by 1980s there were 200 songs about him - He would visit people's homes in disguise and ask what they thought of him - Also made lookalikes to attend functions and official engagements (given months of training) |
Modernisation 1: - When Saddam nationalised the oil industry revenues increased from $476 million in 1972 to $26 billion in 1980 - This improved national finances and was used to fund wage rises, tax cuts and subsidies for basic foodstuffs -Modernisation was the way he built up support among Iraqi people |
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Modernisation 2: - Electrification was extended through the country and poor families sometimes received gifts like TVs and fridges - Railroads were built as well as oil pipelines as a countrywide network - New radio and television network was established which allowed propaganda to reach an even wider audience - Major building programmes for school, houses and hospitals and enrolment for school and Uni increased significantly - Hospital treatment was made free and campaign launched to end adult illiteracy |
Military expansion 1: - Oil revenues allowed him to make Iraq a major military power - Got arms imported from Soviet Russia, France and and other European states - Able to buy helicopters, tanks, bombers, air missiles and artillery etc - Arms increased from 10 to 12 divisions - In July 1979 first chemical warfare plan was built |
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Military expansion 2: - By 1980 chemical plant producing large amounts of mustard gas, blister agent, Tabun and VX that attacks the nervous system -Purchased nuclear reactor from france in 1976 but got destroyed by Israelis in bombing June 1981 - Further attempts to develop nuclear weapons were ended by Allied bombing raids in Gulf war 1990 |
Totalitarianism: - Saddam and Baath party controlled all aspects of life (social, economic, political and military) - Special courts run by President's office delivered verdicts that Saddam would like - All production was geared towards the needs of the state - Membership of Baath party was needed to go to Uni - Controlled media so that it was unlikely to hear any critical views on Saddam's regime -Young children were introduced to Baath ideology and moulded over time |
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Why was there a revolution in Iran 1979? |
- 1979 the Shah of Iran left his country never to return - The Shah Muhammad Reza Pahlavi had offended almost every sector of society - The last year of his rule was full of marches, demonstrations, violent clashes between protestors and authorities, shootings, deaths and widespread strikes - Although fate of the Iranian monarchy was decided between 1977-79 the things that lead to the final events had been building up over last 25 years |
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The 5 key events that lead up to the Iranian revolution in 1978 |
1. Protest in city of Qom against newspaper article against Khomeini 2. Protest in Tabriz put down by tanks 3. Cinema Rex burned down by Savak and militant islamists 4. Black friday event when demonstrators gather in Jaleh Square in Tehran to protest and are shot at by army and 84 people die 5. 2 million people protest in Tehran becasue they believe "The Shah must go" |
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Opposition to foreign influence: - Shah's reign begun in 1941 (didn't have full control at this stage) -Prime minister Mohammad Mussadeq nationalised Iran's oil industry and this angered the British - With the help of CIA and MI6 the Shah overthrew Mussadeq in a military coup in August 1953 - The coup had no supportso after 1953 the rule of the Shah would be associated with the British and Americans - Influence of USA became more apparent when the Shah started importing food from this USA and introducing American style shopping malls - This angered farmers and bazaar merchants |
Dissatisfaction with Shah's modernisation programme: - The modernisation programme introduced was called the "White Revolution" In 1963 - It aimed to reform land, health, education and expand industry - Land reform failed because redistributed land wasn't sufficient for peasants to supports families - Health reform failed because Iran still hd very high infant mortality - Education reform also did not work because there were still high illiteracy rates in adults - Also income distribution was more unequal and there was a big difference between the rich and poor partly because of money spent on making their military 5th biggest in the world |
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Resentment at autocratic and repressive government: - The Shah filled government positions with people who agreed with him - He made Iran a one party state in 1975 - Changed calendar from muslin to imperial and lost favour with religious leaders - Created Savak (Iranian secret police) in 1957 to act as the eyes and ears of the Shah and impose scensorship - Methods of Savak include torture, forced confessions and execution - People were more vocal against the Shah in 1977 because of international pressure he relaxed his police controls |
Leadership of Ayatollah Khomeini: - People dissatisfied with the Shah were nationalists, socialists, school leavers, bazaar merchants, farmers unemployed migrants and Islamic groups - Ayatollah united these groups against the Shah -Ayatollah was sent to Iraq in 1964 because he spoke out against the Shah but still sent his political messages across the boarder to Iran - He aimed to establish an Islamic government to overthrow the Shah - Shah left the country in January and two weeks later Ayatollah arrives in Iran from exile in France |
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What were the causes and consequences of the Iran- Iraq war 1980-8? |
- September 1980 was the start of an 8 year war when Iraq invaded Iran with land and air forces - Reason for this conflict were a mixture of old disputes and more immediate considerations |
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What were the territorial disputes about? |
- The two areas disputed most were the Shatt al- Arab waterway and Khuzestan |
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The Shatt Al- Arab waterway |
- The waterway was important because it was used for oil exports and it was Iraq's only outlet to the sea
- A treaty was made in 1937 that gave a boundary in the river and favoured Iraq - The boundary was made on the low watermark on the East side of the river - The Shah or Iran rejected the treaty in 1969 and refused to pay further shipping tolls to Iraq |
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Khuzestan province |
- Was a south- western Iranian province and was oil rich and full on non- Persians - Saddam encourage Arabs living there to revolt against the Shah and the Shah encouraged the Kurds to revolt against Saddam |
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The Algiers agreement |
- The agreement was made in 1975 - It stated that Iran should end support for the Kurds in North Iraq, Iraq should drop claim to Khuzestan and Iraq agreed to follow the deep waterline in the Shatt Al- Arab waterway |
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Saddam's aims in invading Iran |
1. To Annex Khuzestan province in Iran 2. To expand oil reserves 3. To have control over the Shatt Al- Arab waterway 4. To make Iraq the leader of the Arab world |
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What was the Arab League |
- Was established in 1945 to promote the political, economic and cultural interests of the Arab countries - Founder members were Egypt, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Syria |
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Why did Saddam choose 1980 to invade Iran |
- The overthrow of the Shah led to an ending of an alliance between USA and Iran - This meant that Iranian army was deprived of American supplied parts for Iran's armoured vehicles - Iran was also weak due to a purge of senior military leaders |
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Ayatollah's opposition to Saddam Hussein |
- Iran was a Shiite Muslim state and Iraq was mainly controlled by Sunni Muslims - Ayatollah encouraged anti- Baath protests because he was bitter over expulsion from Iraq in 1977 - Anti- Baath riots did take place and Saddam blamed Ayatollah |
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Western involvment |
- US feared destabilisation in the region for oil supplies and didn't want Islamic revolutions to spread - The War of the Tankers refers to 1984 when Iran and Iraq target each others' oil tankers and merchant ships in an attempt to damage each others' trade - US gets involved and supports Iraq |
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Consequences of the war |
- In 1988 Iran agreed to cease fire - The causes were territorial disputes, desire for domination in Gulf, opportunity of Islamic revolution in Iran and Ayatollah's opposition to Saddam - Consequences were no leadership change, no boarder change, no diplomatic change, huge death toll of 1 million Iran and 250- 500 thousand Iraq, huge economic damage and Iraq went from very rich to almost bankrupt |
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Why did the first gulf war take place? |
- In 1990 Saddam ordered the invasion of Kuwait - Within 24 hours Iraq's 100,000 strong army had crushed Kuwait's 16,000 man army - The ruler of Kuwait escaped with most of his family to Saudi Arabia - Iraq was condemned in Arab League and United Nations imposed military sanctions - Saudi Arabia appealed to US military fearing that it would be the next victim of Iraqi aggression - Saddam's unprovoked aggression had united almost all international community against him |
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Historical claim to Kuwait |
- End of WW1 Kuwait was officially part of Turkish empire's province of Basra - British accepted responsibility for Kuwait's defence and foreign affairs in 1899 and 1922 and helped establish boundaries with Iran and Iraq and Saudi Arabia - Association between Kuwait and Basra led number of Iraqi rulers to insist that Kuwait was part of Iraq |
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Saddam Hussein's domestic position |
- He attempted to represent the Iran- Iraq war as an Iraqi victory but realised that Iraqi people would soon see through the propaganda - in reality their country had endured a costly and bloody conflict that had essentially ended where it started - Iraq also displayed many characteristics of a defeated power like inflation etc since July 1988 there had been 4 attempts on Saddam's life and needed to secure his role - Kuwait seemed to be the answer because he could pose as a liberator of a territory |
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Financial and economic factors: - In Iran- Iraq war Saddam was given loans that amounted to $40 billion from Saudi Arabia and Kuwait - He asked both countries to write off loans and asked for another loan of $30 million - Both countries refused - Saddam also asked both countries to bring their oil production in line with the quotas fixed by OEPC and both countries refused - Saddam also accused Kuwait of stealing $2.4 billion of oil from Iraq - He accused both states of waging economic war against his country and threatened dire consiquences |
Establish regional leadership: - If invasion of Kuwait was successful Iraq would gain 120 miles of Gulf coastline with natural harbour - Iraq would be in good position to dominate Saudi Arabia - Would gain massive amounts of oil wealth - He hoped to become most powerful Arab leader in the Middle East |
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Expected American reaction: - Prior to 1990 Saddam's main objective was to keep US neutral if it made any move against Kuwait - US ambassador Glaspie gave Saddam impression that the matter was not on of key concern to US - US mistook Saddam's real threats for empty ones - Saddam drew conclusion that the invasion would be unapposed |
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Operation Desert Shield (7 August 1990- 17 January 1991) |
- After initial occupation of Kuwait there was no further fighting for 5 months - During this period there was a build up of American, French and British troops in Saudi Arabia - United Nations demanded Iraqi withdrawal from Kuwait and then imposed economic sanctions - UN finally set a deadline for Iraqi withdrawal before economic action takes place |
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Operation Desert Storm (17 January- 28 February 1991) |
17- 23 February - Planes and helicopters attacked Iraqi military targets in Kuwait and Iraq - Iraq retaliated by launching SCUD missiles on Israel (trying to provoke an Israeli attack on Iraq) 24- 28 February - Forces invaded Iraq and Kuwait forcing Saddam to order an Iraq withdrawal from Kuwait - 10,000 Iraqi troops were killed and US destroyed 186 Iraqi tanks and 127 armoured vehicles - On 28 February President Bush announced a ceasefire and declared Kuwait had been freed from Iraq |
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What were the consequences of the First Gulf War? |
- Saddam suffered massive military defeat and forces had been ejected from Kuwait 100 hours after beginning ground war - Much of his country's economic infrastructure had been destroyed - Iraqi people sustained losses of up to 100,000 and combat fatalities up to 20,000 - They now had to suffer food shortages, medical shortages and clean water shortages - Sanctions meant that Iraq could not sell oil abroad |
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Chapter 3: Why had international peace collapsed by 1939? |
What were the long- term consequences of the peace treaties of 1919- 23? |
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Why were the powers dissatisfied? |
- Japan did not get radical equality clause because it was rejected at Paris Peace Conference and also did not receive big share of Germany's trading rights in China - Italy did not receive the share it wanted in former colonies of Turkey and Germany - Germany objected to almost everything in the treaty of Versailles (war guilt, reparations, disarmament and territorial provisions) |
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Why and what was Germany's potential? |
- Treaty left Germany extremely dissatisfied - Failed to stop Germany from growing into powerful state - Even though Germany lost former colonies / territory they still had lots of resources - Germany's dissatisfaction and ability to bring about revision of settlement that proved to be dangerous |
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What was Hitler's foreign policy? |
- German rearmament and remilitarisation of Rhineland - Anschluss union with Austria - Transfer of Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia - Occupation of Prague - Seizure of Memel - Claims made over Danzig and Polish Corridor |
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What was the impact of British and French opinion? |
- To begin with British were satisfied with treaty terms but by end of 1930s many people in British government believed it was too harsh - British politicians wanted to assist Germany in a peaceful revision of the treaty - French though treaty was not harsh enough -By mid 1930s it was clear Hitler wanted to overturn treaty - France made partnership with Britain as they did not feel strong enough to stand up to Hitler on their own |
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Why was the Treaty of Versailles inconsistent? |
- East Prussia was separated from the rest of Germany by the Polish corridor - Danzig (mostly German populated) was put under the control of the League of Nations - 3.5 million Germans were put under Czech rule in Sudetenland |
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What were the consequences of the failures of the League in the 1930s? |
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Why was Manchuria a failure? |
- The League did not take any action against Japan - Japan realised that the League could do nothing to stop further advancements into China - Italy and Germany came to believe that their territorial ambitions were possible |
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Why was Abyssinia a failure? |
- The League was exposed to be double dealing when the Hoare-Laval pact of Dec 1935 was uncovered - Mussolini and Hitler were happy becasue it led them to believe that the League was incapable of effective action - This meant that more aggressive action was expected from Italy - Also meant that Hitler would be furthering his policy on destroying the Treaty of Versailles |
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How did the League fail at rearmament? |
- Collective security did not work and countries had to start rearming - Following recession Britain and France did not spend much on arms - Both countries used collective security as excuse for not rearming much - Public were against arms spending becasue they put faith in the Leage |
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How did the League fail at appeasement? |
- Policy of appeasement was being used to make time for Britain and France to rearm - This policy was adopted because of the League failures |
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What was appeasement? |
- Involved making pacts/ deals with dictators in order to keep them happy so they do not start war - It was opposed by few people but overall the majority supported it between 1935- 1939 - Most know example of appeasment was Munich Agreement of Sep 1938 |
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How far was Hitler's foreign policy to blame for the outbreak of war in 1939? |
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What were Hitler's foreign policy aims? |
- Destroy the Treaty of Versailles - Create a greater Germany - Destroy communism - Acquire lebensraum or "living space" - Build up a central European empire |
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How did Hitler plan to destroy the Treat of Versailles? |
- Regain lost territory - Western frontier would be secured by remilitarising the Rhineland - Disarmament clauses would be broken by introducing conscription - Army, Navy and Airforce would be rebuilt |
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How did Hitler plan to create a Greater Germany? |
- German speaking people would be bought to the Reich - Frontiers of Germany would be extended to cover areas where population was mostly German - Frontiers could include parts of Poland, Austria and Czechslovakia |
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How did Hitler plan to destroy communism? |
- Germany would start conflict with Soviet Russia |
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How did Hitler plant to acquire lebensraum? |
- He believe that all Germans were entitles to living space - This meant that more land was needed for cultivation and recreation - Implied expansion eastwards to Poland and Soviet Russia |
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How far was Hitler's early foreign policy 1933-1935 directed towards war? |
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What happened in 1933? |
- Germany refused payment of reparations - Left world disarmament conference - Left League of nations - Germany began to rearm in secret |
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What happened January 1934? |
- 10 year non aggression pact made with Poland |
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What happened July 1934? |
- Attempted union with Austria - Followed murder of Austrian Chancellor Dollfuss - Hitler was ready to strike but Mussolini protested - Hitler backed down |
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What happened January 1935? |
- Saar plebiscite was made - 90% were in favour of return to Germany - Germany regained first bit of land through peaceful means |
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What happened march 1935? |
- Conscription was reintroduced - Allied responded with formation of Stresa Front - Hitler's actions prompted France, Soviet Russia and Czechoslovakia to sign mutual assistance pact |
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What happened June 1935? |
- Anglo-German Naval Agreement - Pact legalised German rearmament without agreement of France or Italy - Countries now got idea that they were allowed to pursue their own nation interests - Mussolini applied interest to expanding his colonies |
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What was the Stresa front? |
- Britain, France and Italy made a stand against Hitler's violation of disarmament clause - Issued strongly worded protest - Then undermined by Anglo-German Naval Agreement |
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How far did Hitler reveal his true intentions between 1936- 1938? |
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Why/ how did Hitler manage to remilitarise the Rhineland? |
- Without army in Rhineland other western armies could invade - March 1936 Germans marched into Rhineland - Neither French nor British did not want to go to war over this issue - Hitler followed remilitarisation of Rhineland with promise of 25- year non-aggression pact |
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Why did Hitler get involved in the Spanish Civil war of 1936-1939? |
- Decided to support fascist, Franco with Mussolini - After 30 months fascists emerged with victory |
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What did Hitler hope to achieve from the war? |
- Hoped Spain would become a German ally - Hoped Germany's armed forced could be tested - Hoped Mussolini would leave France and Britain and come into an alliance with Germany - Hoped Spain could act as a smokescreen for Hitler's intentions elsewhere - Test to see how powers would react to Hitler's rearmament |
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What did Hitler actually achieve from the war? |
- Spain opted for neutrality during WW2 - Hitler was able to practice dive- bombing on Spanish cities with missiles - Mussolini abandoned France and Britain and made a speech that was important staging before formal alliance - Smokescreen worked because Hitler had successful action over Austria and Czechoslovakia - Powers did not react to Hitler's rearmament |
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What was the Anti- Comintern Pact? |
- November 1936 - Signed by Germany and Japan (Italy joined in Nov 1937) - Directed against Comintern (Soviet agency promoting communism) - Treaty ensured that Japan and Germany would not assist soviet Russia if it attacked |
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What was the Anschluss? |
- March 1938 - Hitler wanted to include all German speaking people in the Reich - Largest concentration of German speakers outside of Germany was in Austria (7 million) - Union forbidden by treaty of Versailles but main problem was Italy who believed Austria was in its sphere of influence - Italy made military movements in 1934 to stop union - Feb 1938 meeting took place between Hitler and Austrian Chancellor ----------------FINISH---------------- |
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Why were there problems with the Sudetenland? |
- Populated by 3.5 million Germans - In Czechoslovakia but bordered Germany - Hitler disliked Czechoslovakia because of alliance with Russia and France - Had democratic government - Also was created under Treaty of versailles - Germans were being discriminated against - Encouraged protests and though if seizing in 1938 May buy was afraid of prospect of war - By September western powers decided to resolve issue due to fear of Hitler using force |
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What was the Munich Agreement? |
- 2 meetings took place between Chamberlain and Hitler - 15 Sep 1938 in Bavaria - 22 Sep 1938 in Rhineland |
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What happened at both meetings in the Munich Agreement? |
15 Sep, Bavaria - Areas of Sudetenland with high German population given to Germany - Had to be approved by British, French and Czech governments 22 Sep, Rhineland - Was approved by all governments - Hitler wanted territories immediately - Demanded Czechs withdraw from Sudeten area by 1 Oct to avoid conflict |
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What happened/ was the Munich conference? |
- Neville Chamberlain, Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, Edouard Deluder (Britain, Germany, Italy, France) - Sudetenland would be transferred to Germany over 10 days - Plebiscites held in areas were doubt over dominant nationality lies - Four powers guarantee remainder of Czechoslovakia once Polish and Hungarian claims met |
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What happened with the Czech, Hitler and Chamberlain after the Munich conference? |
- Czech government was not invited to Munich agreement - Had to agree to break up their country or face war with Germany on their own - Chamberlain visited Hitler with document that pledged peace for Europe - Hitler agreed to 'Collection of vague promises' - Chamberlain returned to London claiming he had bought 'Peace of out time' |
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What were the things for the Munich agreement? |
- Chamberlain did not think Britain was prepared for war - Air defences were incomplete and could face blow by Luftwaffe - British self- governing territories were not united by prospect of war in1938 - War in1938 seen as war against self determination while in 1939 seen as war to prevent German domination |
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What were things against the Munich agreement? |
- Britain and France abandoned Czechoslovakia - Munich was seen as extreme example of appeasement - If war had broken out Britain and France would have had 36 divisions of Czech arming with them in 1938 - If war had happened Britain and France may have had assistance or neutrality of soviet Russia |
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Was the policy of appeasement justified? |
- Led to direct sacrifice of Czechoslovakia - Boosted self confidence go Hitler - After second world war was regarded as policy of weakness and concession - Gave Hitler time to further improve defences - Gave France and Britain time to improve defences - Appeasement may not have been the right policy but made sense at the time |
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Appeasement and its popularity |
- Appeasers all leaders of democratic countries - All governments in democratic countries have to take into account opinion of public - Public opinion in Britain and France was for peace in 1930s - Little support for rearmament |
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Appeasement and the threat of communism |
- Threat of Soviet Russia and communism - Some feared communism more than Nazis - To reduce threat of communism |
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Appeasement and correcting injustices of Versallies |
- By 1930s many though that Versailles had been too harsh on Germany -Some believed that they should be allowed to defend themselves - Also that Hitler's other demands were reasonable - Until March 1939 good reason to accept Hitlers behaviour - Armed approach would have upset public and British Dominions |
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Appeasement and increasing militarism of Japan and Italy |
- In late 1930 Germany was a threat along with Japan and Italy - Possibility of war with all three countries - British army didn't think they they could win against all three - Appeasement showed the weakness of Britain and France before they rearmed |
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Why did Britain and France adopt a policy of trying to deter Germany after March 1939? |
- The reason for the change from appeasement to deterrence in 1939 was due to the invasion of Czechoslovakia - Once Sudetenland was taken Hitler made a strike against Czechoslovakia - Everything up to that point (including Munich conference) could be justified by self-determination - The take over of Czechoslovakia was purely to increase the power of Germany |
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What was the British-French guarantee to Poland? |
- Poland was Hitlers next target - This was predicted by the fact that Poland was recreation by Treaty settlement, Polish corridor separated East Prussia from rest of Germany, Danzig in the Polish Corridor was populated mainly by Germans and included territory that was owned by Germans in 1919 (West Prussia) - German demands (wanting Danzig back etc) were reasonable but due to Czechoslovakia incident appeasement was replaced by deterrence - Guarantee was that Britain and France would support Poland if attacked - Attempts t create grand eastern alliance failed due to Soviet Russia not joining |
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How important was the Nazi-Soviet pact? |
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What was the Nazi- Soviet pact? |
- 10 year non-aggression pact between Nazis and Soviets - Privately agreed to split Poland |
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Why was the pact made? |
- To ensure that once he took Poland he would not go to war with Soviet Russia and Britain/ France - Staling feared battle on two fronts (Germany and Japan) - Staling also hoped that the Anglo-French/German war would last years letting him build up defences - Pact made sense but was unexpected due to opposite ideology - Suited short term ambitions |
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Why did Britain and France declare war on Germany in September 1939? |
- Britain and France declared war on Germany following invasion of Poland on 1st September
- Real reason for war was looking at the greater picture that Germany wanted European domination |
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Why did Britain and France regard this action as a sign of Germany's intention to dominate Europe? |
- Events in Czechoslovakia showed that Hitler's true intentions were to dominate Europe by force - Events in Poland were regarded as continuation of this process |
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Why was Hitler not deterred by the British- French guarantees to Poland? |
- Hitler did not think that Britain and France would declare war on Germany in September 1939 - Due to Nazi-Soviet pact that would mean that Britain and France could not give effective help - It was also unexpected because of the way that Britain and France reacted to other moves that Hitler made - Patience of Britain and France had run out and in March 1939 there was acceptance that a war would start soon |
