Ib Psychology Hl - Learning Outcomes (With Options)

Front 1

BLA: outline principles that define the biological level of analysis and explain how they may be demonstrated in research

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1) Cognitions, emotions, and behaviors are products of the anatomy and physiology of the nervous and endocrine systems. Harlow (1948) with Phineas Gage, Money (1974) as counter

2) Animal research may inform our understanding of human behavior. Martinez and Kastner (1991), Rosenzweig and Bennett (1972)

3) Patterns of behavior can be inherited, behavior is innate because it is genetically based. Minnesota Twin Study, Bouchard et al. (1990), Grove et al. (1990)

Front 2

BLA: discuss how and why particular research methods are used in the biological level of analysis

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1) Animal studies to make generalizations with humans. Rosenzweig and Bennett (1972), Martinez and Kesner (1991).

2) Twin studies to determine biological basis of behaviors through genetics and concordance rates. Minnesota Twin Study, Bouchard et al. (1990), Grove et al. (1990)

3) Case studies for exceptional cases to study, Harlow (1848) with Phineas Gage, Milner and Scoville (1957) with HM.

Front 3

BLA: discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the biological level of analysis

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1) Money (1974), no withdrawal, no debriefing, no confidentiality, no informed consent (use of minors), harm of participants, deception

2) Rosenzweig and Bennett (1972), rats were harmed and left to live in a deprived environment, could not give consent or understand the study, ethics of animal testing

3) Schater and Singer (1962), testing factor theory of emotion (emotion arises from combination of cognition and arousal) with adrenaline, deceived patients. Participants were debriefed, and deception was revealed and justified

Front 4

BLA: explain one study related to the localization of function in the brain

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1) Harlow (1848), Phineas Gage and frontal lobe, area damaged controls personality and inhibitions

2) Broca (1861), patient ‘Tan,’ Broca’s area responsible for ability to produce coherent speech, found in post-mortem autopsy

3) Wernicke (1874), area in the brain responsible for comprehension of speech, patients with damage here can still speak, but it is meaningless

Front 5

BLA: using one or more examples, explain the effects of neurotransmission on human behavior

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1) Serotonin affects sleep, libido, associated with depression and aggression if deficient, secreted by pineal glands. Kasamatsu and Hirai (1999) higher levels during pilgrimage caused hallucinations, changed perception

2) Acetylcholine involved in learning and memory formation, Martinez and Kesner (1991) with rats running mazes, released into synaptic cleft

Front 6

BLA: using one or more examples, explain functions of two hormones in human behavior

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1) Adrenaline, secreted by the adrenal glands, responsible for fight or flight response, deals with external threats, increases oxygen to brain. Schacter and Singer (1962), those not told about adrenaline had stronger emotions

2) Oxytocin (also a neurotransmitter) secreted by the pituitary, stimulates lactation/contractions, promotes maternal feelings, trust, attachment. Ditzen (2009), reduces stress in arguing couples, positive communication encouraged

Front 7

BLA: discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes

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1) Bidirectional relationship

2) Brain plasticity, environment can rearrange neurons through learning, Rosenzweig and Bennett (1972), deprivation in rats reduced cortex thickness and made frontal lobe lighter than rats stimulated

3) Mirror neurons reacting to environment change brian activity, Iacoboni (2004), looked at human faces while in fMRI, asked to imitate, stimulated limbic system, activated pleasure centers in brain

Front 8

BLA: examine one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of behavior

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1) Memory and brain function can be affected by physiology, localization

2) HM studied by Milner and Scoville (1957), damage to hippocampus of epileptic, caused amnesia, cannot form new memories

3) Clive Wearing by Sacks (2007), damage to hippocampus by viral infection, sever anterograde and retrograde memory loss, kept skills but memory span of just seconds

Front 9

BLA: discuss the use of brain imaging technologies in investigating the relationships between biological factors and behavior

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1) fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), uses magnetic fields to produce 3D image of brain, can distinguish between tissue types, can see structures. Excellent resolution, non invasive, can be used repeatedly, but correlation without causation, false positives, cannot be used with metal objects (pacemakers, etc.), used by Milner and Scoville (1957) to study HM's brain damage

2) PET (positron emission topography), injection of radioactive glucose shows brain activity, colored display of levels. Good resolution, can track ongoing activity, invasive, expensive, takes longer, limited number of injections. Used by Davidson (2004) to study gamma waves in meditators

Front 10

BLA: with reference to relevant research studies, to what extent does genetic inheritance influence behavior?

Back 10

1) Bouchard and McGue (1981), closer kinship shows higher intelligence correlations, supports influence of genetics on intelligence (and behavior)

2) Bouchard et al. (1990), Minnesota Twin Study, MZ and DZ twins together and apart, similarity rates around 74%, 70% of intelligence is genetic, 30% environmental, supports role of genetics

3) Scarr and Weinberg (1976), trans-racial adoption study of parent and child IQ correlations, no significant correlations, environment is more important, does not support genetics

4) Brunner et al. (1993), studying Dutch family with aggression disorder (MAOA point mutation), does affect behavior

5) Conclusion, genetics affect behavior to a large extent, but environmental factors also play a large role

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BLA: examine one evolutionary explanation of behavior

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1) Disgust reactions prolongs life, leads to passing on genes

2) Fessler (2006) studying pregnant women, first trimester more sensitive to disgust than third trimester, protects fetus during crucial stages for evolution

3) Curtis et al. (2004), younger and female more sensitive, older and male less sensitive. Young female's bodies affect fetus's development more than the latter, lowers one reproduction finished (age)

Front 12

BLA: discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on behavior

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1) Confidentiality (Clive Wearing), privacy, security, protection from harm, withdrawal, deception, etc. as ethical considerations in all research

2) Researchers must also prevent family drama from paternity tests, or social stigma from disorders, Brunner et al. (1993)

3) Money (1974), violated most ethical considerations, based on whether sex (genetics) is more important in behavior than environment

Front 13

CLA: outline principles that define the cognitive level of analysis and explain how they may be demonstrated in research

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1) Humans are information processors, and mental representations guide behavior. Attentional processes by Stroop (1935)

2) Mental processes can be studied scientifically by developing theories and using various research models. Memory models (multi-store) by Atkinson and Shriffin (1968), working memory model by Baddely (1966) with support from Baddely and Hitch (1974)

3) Social and cultural factors affect cognitive processes. Schemas can influence learning and knowledge, Bartlett (1932) and schema theory, Cole and Scribner (1974) and Kpelle children's education and learning

Front 14

CLA: discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the cognitive level of analysis

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1) Experiments to determine cause and effect relationship by manipulating variables. Loftus and Palmer (1974)

2) Case studies for exceptional cases to study, Sacks (2007) with Clive Wearing, Milner and Scoville (1957) with HM

3) Use of brain imaging techniques to determine covert processes in cognitive psychology, fMRI with HM study, PET for Davidson (2004) to study gamma waves in meditating monks, Iacoboni (2004) to study mirror neurons

Front 15

CLA: discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the cognitive level of analysis

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1) Protection of participants, consent, right to withdraw, confidentiality, no deception, debriefing

2) Sacks (2007) with Clive Wearing, HM by Milner and Scoville, Genie by Curtiss (1981), studying without ability to consent, confidentiality

3) Speisman et al. (1964) for causing distress to participants

Front 16

CLA: evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies

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1) Schema theory, the cognitive theory stating that humans are active processors of information who therefore integrate new information into existing, stored information (schemas)

2) Bartlett (1932) War of the Ghosts supports schemas affecting memory, but this is less valid due to a poorly controlled experiment (not sufficiently specific with instructions). Still provides insight into cultural distortion

3) Anderson and Pichert (1978), influence of schema processing on encoding and retrieval of memories. Showed a change between buyer and burglar schemas, but experiment had poor ecological validity

4) Schema theory does not explain how knowledge is stored, still requires more research

Front 17

CLA: evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies

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1) Multi-store memory model by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) has sensory, short term, and long term memory stores. Based on idea of brain as a computer, progresses linearly between stores

2) Model supported by Baddely (1966), investigated encoding with words semantically and acoustically similar and different, better recall of acoustically different words than semantically similar. Short term memories encoded acoustically, low ecological validity and simplistic experiment

3) Working memory model by Baddely and Hitch (1974) with central executive with slave systems. More complicated, but does not explain the process of memory too well

4) Supported by Baddely and Hitch (1974) having participants memorizing numbers while multitasking, impairment was not devastating, supports STM as there is more than one store, explains why people can multitask

Front 18

CLA: explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process

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1) Biological factors in relation to localized brain functions affect cognitive processes. Highlights interaction between physiology and memory

2) Sacks (2007), study of Clive Wearing, viral infection damaged hippocampus, which is responsible for forming new memories. Anterograde and retrograde amnesia

3) HM, by Milner and Scoville (1957), young epileptic had operation, removed temporal lobe and hippocampus, studied by MRI scans. Anterograde and some retrograde amnesia, cannot create new memories, working memory intact with childhood memories

Front 19

CLA: discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process

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1) Effect of sociocultural factors (schemas and methods for learning) affect resulting memories, may produce emotional reaction or selective memory

2) Bartlett (1932) War of the Ghosts, cultural schemas may distort memories and reduce their accuracy

3) Brown and Kulik (1977), cultural factors may influence flashbulb memory formation, highlight certain memories

4) Cole and Scribner (1974), Kpelle and American children's differences in education changing how they remember information

Front 20

CLA: with reference to relevant research studies, to what extent is one cognitive process reliable?

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1) Memories can be huge in volume, but are changeable and unreliable to a large extent

2) Loftus and Palmer (1974) eyewitness testimonies, maybe be easily altered through suggestions in leading questions

3) Bartlett (1932) War of the Ghosts, cultural schemas may influence accuracy of memories, thus making them unreliable and highly subjective

Front 21

CLA: discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes

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1) Brain imaging technologies may be used to examine covert processes in cognitive research

2) fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), uses magnetic fields to produce 3D image of brain, can distinguish between tissue types, can see structures. Excellent resolution, non invasive, can be used repeatedly, but correlation without causation, false positives, cannot be used with metal objects (pacemakers, etc.), used by Milner and Scoville (1957) to study HM's brain damage and memory loss

2) PET (positron emission topography), injection of radioactive glucose shows brain activity, colored display of levels. Good resolution, can track ongoing activity, invasive, expensive, takes longer, limited number of injections. Used by Davidson (2004) to study gamma waves in meditators

3) Significance of brain scans, but all have disadvantages

Front 22

CLA: to what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion?

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1) Emotions are somewhat dependent on or are initiated by physiological or cognitive factors

2) Two-factor theory of emotion, requires physiological arousal by the situation, emotional interpretation (appraisal) and subsequent labelling of the arousal as an emotion. Support by Schacter and Singer (1962) and study of adrenaline and appraisal of emotions, those knowing of the situation had less intense emotions

3) Lazarus (1990), theory of emotional appraisal, emotion provoking stimulus triggers appraisal followed by arousal (reverse of above). Organism will assess meaning and decide how to react

4) Support for appraisal theory by Speisman et al. (1964), showed video of unpleasant genital surgery, narrative influenced emotions. Framing of a situation will influence appraisal and changed reactions

5) Cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion to a great extent

Front 23

CLA: evaluate one theory of how emotions may affect one cognitive process

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1) Emotions may influence memory formation and retrieval processes

2) Flashbulb memories by Brown and Kulik (1977) are particularly vivid, intense emotions may influence their formation. Still, this may be from post-event rehearsal, as people may not understand significance during event. High ecological validity, but cannot be generalized past Americans, very retrospective, no quantitative data

3) Valid theory in some ways, but poor experiment and possible explanations against it. Theory may be correct to a limited extent

Front 24

SLA: outline principles that define the sociocultural level of analysis and explain how they may be demonstrated in research

Back 24

1) Humans are social animals and can be influenced by social situations, Asch (1951) conformity experiment, do not want to be seen dissenting as outsiders

2) Culture influences behavior, Bartlett (1932) War of the Ghosts with schema theory, Chen (2005) with impatience in long and short term cultures

3) Humans have a social self and thus have the need to belong, Zimbardo et al. (1995), people have collective and social identities that determine behavior, conception of roles

4) People's view of the world are resistant to change are are developed by the community and culture, Festinger et al. confirmation bias and cognitive dissonance

Front 25

SLA: discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the sociocultural level of analysis

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1) Experiments that control variables, determine correlation (and cause and effect), Asch (1951) in a laboratory setting

2) Covert and overt participant observation to examine behaviors closely, Festinger et al. (1956)

3) Case studies for unusual conditions, as above, cannot be generalized widely

4) Semi structured interviews and focus groups for broader discussion

Front 26

SLA: discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the sociocultural level of analysis

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1) Protection of participants, consent, right of withdrawal, no deception, etc. with Zimbardo et al. (1995)

2) Milgram (1963), abused right for withdrawal, psychological harm, tension, experiment not stopped, deception, lack of consent, with debriefing

3) Ethical concerns in Asch (1951) with social pressure and deception, lack of consent

Front 27

SLA: describe the role of situational and dispositional factors in explaining behavior

Back 27

1) Behavior can be attributed to situational (external) or dispositional (internal) factors

2) Situation may change people's behavior for the worse, Milgram (1963) and Zimbardo et al. (1995), even though they may be situationally 'normal'

3) Perception of other and events may change with fundamental attribution error in which things are attributed to dispositional factors rather than situational, Lee et al. (1977) game show contestants

4) People's opinion of themselves is also affected, self-serving bias, dispositional rather than situational, Lau and Russel (1980), coaches take credit for their wins (dispositional), losses attributed to weather

Front 28

SLA: discuss two errors in attribution

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1) Fundamental attribution error, overestimation of dispositional attributions rather than situational factors
Lee et al. (1977), game show, hosts perceived as more intelligent

2) Self serving bias to preserve self esteem, other people are faulty because of dispositional factors, own self because of situational factors and reversed with successes
Lau and Russel (1980), football coaches take credit for their wins (dispositional), not losses

3) Cultural and individual factors, collectivist cultures less likely to make self-serving bias errors, depressed people also less likely

Front 29

SLA: evaluate social identity theory, making reference to relevant studies

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1) Social identity theory, tendency to divide individuals into in and out groups, category accentuation effect (exaggeration of intra group similarities, and inter group differences), identity based on group membership, adopting group thinking, enhances self esteem so motivation to prove own group superiority

2) Cialdini et al. (1976), winning football teams referred to as 'we' when they win, 'they' when they lose. Supports theory, valid study

3) Tajifel (1970), Klee and Kandinsky random groups, boys tended to favor members of their on groups, maximized similarities, did not actively dislike the other group

4) Social identity theory may explain how groups and identities are formed and the reason for prejudice, but studies have poor samples, may not necessarily be generalized, and may differ between cultures (especially collectivist vs. individualist differences)

Front 30

SLA: explain the formation of stereotypes and their effect on behavior

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1) Stereotypes formed through social categorization to simplify information, schemas made about individuals and all members of a group

2) Grain of truth hypothesis, initial seed for a stereotype may originate in actual fact

3) Illusory correlation, behavior is dispositional rather than situational, undesirable traits more likely to be attributed to minority group, may be intensified through confirmation bias, example with Snyder and Swann (1978), introverts and extroverts shows distinct treatment

4) Other effects, stereotype threat, fear of inadvertently confirming a stereotype about own group, Aronson (1995) difficult verbal test with whites and blacks, and Spencer et al. (1977) math test for women performed poorly, but not in literature

Front 31

SLA: explain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant studies

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1) Social learning theory as a way for societies and cultures to pass on norms to individuals within a group, developed by Bandura, humans learn from environment through observational learning, noting consequences of actions

2) Models are gatekeepers and authoritative figures, their influence is not necessarily intended. Learning may revolve around association (classical conditioning), rewards and punishment (operant conditioning), or observational learning

3) Social learning requires attention, retention, motor reproduction, motivation. Bandura (1963), Bobo doll experiment shows influence of adults' violence and aggression on children, was replicated and learned

4) Gergely et al. (2002) with 14 month olds and box that lights up, many imitated model and leaned behavior, even so young

5) Theory is supported by experiments, but behavior learned is not always imitated

Front 32

SLA: discuss the use of compliance techniques

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1) Compliance as a form of social influence, result of direct pressure to respond to a request, conformity occurs when pressure to follow majority is indirect but still exerted. Compliance results from authority, commitment, liking, reciprocity, scarcity, and social proof, often used in marketing and sales tactics

2) Foot in the door technique, make small commitment to follow up with true larger one, supported by Dickerson et al. (1992) with shorter showers, shows effective

3) Low balling technique, offer is changed to make it less attractive once target has already agreed to more attractive one, people want to be consistent in their choices. Burger and Cornelius (2003) smoothie coupons, based on making a public commitment and only effective then, but still supports use of technique

3) Supporting research has limitations, but compliance techniques do affect behavior as seen in real life situations

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SLA: evaluate research on conformity to group norms

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1) People naturally conform to group norms to appear part of the group

2) Asch (1951) conformity experiment, did show rates of conformity, but with low ecological validity, demand characteristics, deception, cannot be generalized (American only), may be attributed to cultural climate at the time of US 50s in which conformity and conservatism were high, results are culturally dependent and subjective

3) Second study on conformity replicated Asch (1951) with modern students, only one case of conformity, shows cultural dependence of Asch results. Little generalization, young students. Cultural variation studied by Bond and Smith (1996) meta analysis of different cultural dimensions, conformity differed between individualist and collectivist societies

4) Hogg and Vaughan (1995), used confederates as a minority, showed conformity. Lends weight to Asch's original theory, greater generalization from different situation

Front 34

SLA: discuss factors influencing conformity

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1) Dispositional factors may have some influence on conformity, low self esteem, depression, higher need for social support and approval, high anxiety and feelings of low status in group, not wanting to upset 'harmony' may increase conformity

2) Most other factors are situational, group size of the majority according to Asch (1951), bigger majority increases conformity up to a certain point, after which there is a plateau, some might even suspect collusion (cultural paranoia of 50s) Hogg and Vaughan (1995), conformity is still affected by a minority

3) Variation of Asch, conformity decreased when unanimity dropped with presence of dissenting confederate, even when the confederate wore thick glasses (poor sight)

4) Cultural aspects, individualist societies lower in conformity, shown in meta-analysis of conformity studies by Bond and Smith (1996), but collectivists will not always conform, Japanese conform less when they do not know the rest of the group. Asch (1951) context

Front 35

SLA: define the terms ‘culture’ and ‘cultural norms’

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1) Culture is a dynamic system of rules, both implicit and explicit, established by groups to ensure their survival, involving attitudes, beliefs, values, norms, and behaviors

2) Cultural schemas have been internalized to influence thinking, emotions, behavior, and are shared by members of a sociocultural group, and is learned through daily interaction with members of said group

3) Levels of culture, surface (easily changed, superficial) and deep (rarely changed, deeper significance), multiple layers with national, class, gender, institutional, and counter cultures. Not static, dynamic and always changing, generalizations should be avoided

4) Cultural norms are behavior patterns of specific groups, often passed down from generations by social learning by group gatekeepers (teachers, parents, media, religious figures, peers, etc.), handshake as an example

Front 36

SLA: examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behavior

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1) Hofstede's cultural dimensions, studied over 100,000 IBM employees in different countries with surveys and content analysis to determine cultural variance

2) Individualism vs. collectivism, describe characteristics and general behaviors, Bond and Smith (1996) meta analysis of conformity studies showed differences between the two in conformity behaviors, Japan exception

3) Role of long term or short term orientation on patience and perseverance, long term value commitment and respect long standing traditions (Confucianism), with strong work ethic, social hierarchy, thrift, sense of shame. Short term cultures are not concerned with traditions, are impatient and strive for immediate results. Asia tends to be long term, most of the West short term

4) Chen (2005), investigated short/long term with Singaporeans exposed to American culture, primed either American or Singaporean with collages of pictures recognizable to either culture, American primed more impatient with shipping

Front 37

SLA: using one or more examples, explain ‘emic’ and ‘etic’ concepts

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1) Etic emphasizes similarities between cultures, considers behavior patterns invariant and universal, brings in the perspective of an outsider, female circumcision seen as barbaric practice that traumatizes women. Example, hikikomori is considered strange and abnormal by Westerners especially, and is somewhat more accepted in Japan, where it sometimes appears in the media. Westerners may not attempt to understand cultural context behind it

2) Speisman et al. (1964) video of unpleasant genital surgery, with the expectation that it was something unpleasant to everyone in the cultural perspective
Emic approach emphasizes differences between cultures, considers behaviors to be unique and specific to a culture, seeks an insider perspective, female circumcision seen as a traditional practice that promotes revered values of women’s chastity, Hofstede, analysis of different cultures from a somewhat neutral perspective, attempted to put all countries on a scale relative to each other

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Abnormal: to what extent do biological, cognitive and sociocultural factors influence abnormal behaviour?

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Abnormal: evaluate psychological research relevant to the study of abnormal behaviour

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Abnormal: examine the concepts of normality and abnormality

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Abnormal: discuss validity and reliability of diagnosis

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Abnormal: discuss cultural and ethical considerations in diagnosis

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Front 43

Abnormal: describe symptoms and prevalence of one disorder from two of the following groups: anxiety disorders, affective disorders, eating disorders

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Front 44

Abnormal: analyze etiologies (in terms of biological, cognitive and/or sociocultural factors) of
one disorder from two of the following groups: anxiety disorders, affective disorders, eating disorders

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Abnormal: discuss cultural and gender variations in prevalence of disorders

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Abnormal: examine biomedical, individual and group approaches to treatment

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Abnormal: evaluate the use of biomedical, individual, and group approaches to the treatment of one disorder

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Abnormal: discuss the use of eclectic approaches to treatment

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Abnormal: discuss the relationship between etiology and therapeutic approach in relation to one disorder

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Front 50

Developmental: to what extent do biological, cognitive and sociocultural factors influence human development?

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Front 51

Developmental: evaluate psychological research relevant to developmental psychology

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Developmental: evaluate theories of cognitive development

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Developmental: discuss how social and environmental variables may affect cognitive development

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Front 54

Developmental: examine attachment in childhood and its role in the subsequent formation of relationships

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Developmental: discuss potential effects of deprivation or trauma in childhood on later development

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Developmental: define resilience

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Developmental: discuss strategies to build resilience

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Developmental: discuss the formation and development of gender roles

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Developmental: explain cultural variations in gender roles

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Developmental: describe adolescence

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Developmental: discuss the relationship between physical change and development of identity during adolescence

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Developmental: examine psychological research into adolescence

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