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338 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Dehydration
|
Increased blood osmolarity and decreased blood volume and BP
|
|
Scrotum
|
contains the testes and is divided into two internal compartments by an incomplete connective tissue septum;
|
|
Thirst Mechanisms
|
Stimulation of thirst center (in hypothalamus)
1.) Angiottensin 2 produced in response to decreased blood pressure 2.) ADH produced in response to increased blood osmolarity 3.) Hypothalamic somoreceptors: signal in response to increased ECF osmolarity |
|
The primary female reproducive organ is the ____.
|
ovaries
|
|
Inhibition of Salivation
|
Thirst center sends SYMPATHETIC signals to salivary glands
|
|
Raphe
|
an irregular ridge marking the external midline of the scrotum; continues posteriorly to the anus and anteriorly to the base of the penis
|
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Regulation of Output
|
- Controlling Na+ re absorption (changes volume)
- as Na+ is re absorbed or excreted, water follows |
|
osmosis
|
the net movement of water mol's thru a selectively permeable membr. from an area of high water conc. to an area of low water conc.
|
|
Action of ADH in output
|
- Changes the concentration of urine
- ADH secretion (as well as thirst center) stimulated by hypothalamic osmoreceptors in response to dehydration - Aquaporins synthesized in response to ADH - Membrane proteins in renal collecting ducts to channel water back into renal medulla, Na+ is still excreted - Effects: slows (decreases) in water volume and increases osmolarity |
|
Dartos muscle
|
a layer of smooth muscle within the scrotum; contracts when exposed to cool temperatures; pulls the skin upward, decreasing the overall size of the scrotum
|
|
Hypovolemia
|
Volume depletion, total body water decreases, osmolarity is normal
hemorrhage, severe burns, chronic vomiting or diarrhea |
|
This makes female gametes.
|
ova
|
|
Dehydration
|
Total body water decreases,
osmolarity rises Due to: lack of drinking water, diabetes, profuse sweating, diuretics |
|
Cremaster muscles
|
extensions of adominal muscles into the scrotum; contract in colder temperatures to help pull the testes nearer the body, helping to keep the testes warm; relax in warm temperatures to lower the testes away from the body;
lies between the two layers of spermatic fascia covering the spermatic cord |
|
Infants are more vulnerable to dehydration because
|
Their high metabolic rate demands high urine excretion, kidneys cannot concentrate urine effectively, greater ratio of body surface to mass
|
|
the primary method of water movement into and out of body fluid compartments
|
osmosis
|
|
Most serious effects of dehydration
|
circulatory shock, neurological dysfunction, infant mortality
|
|
Perineum
|
the area between the thighs bounded by the symphysis pubis anteriorly, the coccyx posteriorly, and the ischial tuberosities laterally
|
|
Excess fluid leads to
|
Pulmonary and cerebral edema
|
|
Name two female sex hormones
|
estrogen
progesterone |
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Hypotonic Hydration
|
More water than sodium retained or engested, ECF hypotonic, can cause cellular swelling (RBCs) - like drinking too much pure water can be bad for you
|
|
Urogenital triangle
|
anterior triangle within the perineum;
contains the base of the penis and the scrotum |
|
Potassium Homeostasis
|
Aldosterone stimulates renal secretion of K+ and reabsorbs Na+
Potassium and sodium always move in opposite ways |
|
electrolytes
|
inorganic compounds which disassociate into ions in soln.
most solutes in the body are electrolytes |
|
Hypercalcemia is caused by
|
Alkalosis
Hyperparathyroidism Hypothyroidism |
|
Anal triangle
|
posterior triangle within the perineum;
contains the anal opening |
|
Hypercalcemia
|
Decreased Na+ permeability in the membrane, inhibits depolarization
|
|
Internal genitalia is
|
ovaries
internal ducts |
|
What does Hypercalcemia do to the body?
|
Concentrations greater than 12 mEq/L cause: muscular weakness, depressed reflexes, cardiac arrhythmias
|
|
Testes
|
small ovoid organs;
primary reproductive organ in the male; both exocrine and endocrine glands |
|
Hypocalcemia is caused by
|
Low levels of Vitamin D
diarrhea Pregnancy Acidosis Lactation Hypoparathyroidism Hyperthyroidism |
|
most solutes in the body are:
|
electrolytes
|
|
Hypocalcemia
|
Increased Na+ permeability causing nervous and muscular systems to be abnormally excitable
|
|
Tunica albuginea
|
the outer part of the testis; thick, white capsule consisting of mostly fibrous connective tissue
|
|
What does hypocalcemia do to the body?
|
Causes: Tetanus
larygnospasm Death |
|
External genitalia is
|
external sex organs
|
|
Acid-Base balance of Urine
|
Urine is slightly acidic, variable in how much H+ can be released in the urine, gets rid of excess acidosis?
|
|
Septa (testes)
|
connective tissue divisions within the testis that divides the internal portion of the organ into numerous lobules
|
|
Acidosis
|
H+ diffuses into the cells and drives out K+, elevating K+ in the ECF
|
|
extracellular fluid composition
|
high in Na+, Cl-, Ca++, HCO3-
|
|
What does acidosis do to the cells?
|
H+ buffered by protein in the ICF causes membrane hyperpolarization, nerve and muscle cells become harder to stimulate
|
|
Lobules
|
cone shaped compartments within the interior protion of the testis;
formed by the incomplete septa of the tunica albuginea |
|
What are the risks of Acidosis?
|
CNS depression may lead to death
|
|
This ligament anchors the ovary medially to the uterus
|
ovarian ligament
|
|
Alkalosis
|
H+ diffuses out of the cell and K+ diffuses in.
|
|
Seminiferous tubules
|
the sight of spermatogenesis in the testes;
surrounded by a loose connective tissue stroma that surrounds the tubules and contains clusters of interstitial cells |
|
What does alkalosis do to the cells?
|
Membrane is depolarized, nerves overstimulate
|
|
intracellular fluid composition
|
high in K+, PO4, Mg++, and more prot than plasma
|
|
What are the risks of Alkalosis?
|
Spasms, tetany, convulsions, respiratory paralysis
|
|
Interstitial cells
|
endocrine cells located between the seminiferous tubules; produce testosterone
|
|
This ligament contains the suspensory ligament and the mesovarium
|
Broad ligament
|
|
Tubuli recti
|
a set of short, straight tubules into which the seminiferous tubules empty
|
|
blood plasma has more of this than interstitial fluid and lymph
|
proteins
|
|
Rete testis
|
a tubular network into which the tubuli recti empty
|
|
This ligment anchors he ovary laterally to the pelvic wall
|
Suspensory ligament
|
|
Efferent ductules
|
each testis contains 15-20 of these tubules into which the rete testis empties into; pierce the tunica albuginea to exit the testes;
inner layer contains ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium that helps move sperm cells out of the testis |
|
in blood, osmotic pressure is referred to:
|
colloid osmotic pressure (COP)
|
|
Gubernaculum
|
a fibromuscular cord that attaches the testes to the tissue that will become the scrotum; developed by the 14th week
|
|
This ligament suspends the ovary in between
|
Mesovarium ligament
|
|
Inguinal canal
|
bilateral oblique passageways in the anterior abdominal wall;
forms between weeks 14 and 28; testes move through them to descend into the srotum; much smaller in females |
|
main regulator of water
|
thirst
|
|
Process vaginallis
|
an outpocketing of the peritoneum that precedes the descent of the testes
|
|
This is the blood supply for the ovaries
|
Ovarian arteries and the ovarian branch of the uterine tube
|
|
Tunica vagnialis
|
the residual portion of the process vaginallis in adults; surrounds most of the testis, small amount of fluid in it allows the testis to move with little friction; a serous membrane consisting of a layer of simple squamous epithelium that rests on a basement membrane
|
|
dehydration, as little as 1% decrease in body water causes:
|
decreased saliva production.
increased blood osmotic pressure - stim. osmorecept's in hypothalamus. decreased blood vol. - renin is produced. |
|
Deep inguinal rings
|
origination point of the inguinal canal; open through the aponeuroses of the transverse abdominal muscles
|
|
These are embedded in the ovary cortex
|
ovarian follicles
|
|
Superficial inguinal rings
|
termination point of the inguinal canals; opening in the aponeuroses of the external abdominal oblique muscles
|
|
infants are about what percent water and why?
|
73%
b/c of the low body fat and low bone mass |
|
Cryptorchidism
|
a failure of one or both of the testes to descend into the scrotum; the higher temperature of the abdominal caivty prevents nromal sperm production
|
|
An immature egg is called
|
oocyte
|
|
Spermatogenesis
|
the process of sperm cell development
|
|
a healthy young adult male is about what percent water
|
60%
|
|
Sustentacular cells (Sertoli cells)
|
large cells that extend from the periphery to the lumen of the seminiferous tubule;
nourish germ cells; probably work with interstitial cells in producing numeorus hormones |
|
The cells that surround the oocyte are called
|
follicle cells- one layer thick
granulosa cells-more than one layer is present |
|
Blood-testis barrier
|
tight juncitons located between sustentacular cells; isolates sperm cells from the immune system;
significant because as sperm cells develop, they form surface antigens that the immune system would attack |
|
a healthy young adult female is about what percent water
|
50%
|
|
Dihydrotestosterone
|
a hormone produced in sustentacular cells from testosterone
|
|
This follicle is a secondary follicle at its most mature stage that bulges from the surface of the ovary
|
Graafian follicle
|
|
Androgen-binding protein
|
a protein secreted into the seminiferous tubules by the sustentacular cells;
carries hormones created in the testis to the epididymis |
|
why do females typically have less body water content than males?
|
b/c females have relatively more body fat and less muscle
adipose tissue is the least hydrated (a/b 20%) muscles is a/b 75% |
|
Spermatogonia
|
the most peripheral cells in the seminiferous tubules;
divide by mitosis |
|
What follicle has one layer of squamouslike follicle cells surrounds the oocyte
|
Primordial follicle
|
|
Primary spermatocyte
|
spermatocyte arising by a growth phase from a spermatogonium; gives rise to secondary spermatocytes after first meiotic division
|
|
2 main fluid compartments of the body
|
intracellular fluid
extracellular fluid |
|
Secondary spermatocyte
|
spermatocyte derived from a primary spermatocyte by the first meitoic division;
each secondary spermatocyte gives rise by the second meiotic division to two spermatids |
|
What follicle has two or more layers of cuboidal granulosa cells enclose the oocyte.
|
Primary follicle
|
|
Spermatids
|
immature sperm cells that result fromt the secondary spermatocyte by the second meiotic division
|
|
2 subcomponents of extracellular fluid
|
plasma
interstitial fluid |
|
Spermiogenesis
|
the process by which a spermatid becomes a spermatozoan;
during this time, the head, midpiece and tail are formed |
|
What follicle has a fluid-filled space between granulosa cells that coalesces to form a central antrum
|
Secondary follicle
|
|
Spermatozoan
|
a mature sperm cell
|
|
nonelectrolytes
|
have bonds (usually covalent) that prevent them from dissociating in soln
most are organic mol's |
|
Acrosome
|
a cap on the head of the spermatozoan;
contains hydrolytic enzymes used to pierce the surface of the secondary oocyte |
|
This is the ejection of the oocyte from the ripening follicle
|
Ovulation
|
|
Epididymis
|
a comma shaped structure on the posterior side of the testis into which the efferent ductus leads;
site of final sperm cell maturation |
|
most nonelectrolytes are what type of molecule
|
organic molecules
|
|
Duct of the epididymis
|
a convoluted structure of the epididymis through which sperm cells move;
contains pseudostratified columnar epithelium with elongated microvilli |
|
This is a ruptured after ovulation
|
Corpus luteum
|
|
Stereocilia
|
elongated microvilli within the duct of the epididymis that function to increase the surface area of the epithelial cells that absorb fluid from the lumen of the duct
|
|
examples of nonelectrolytes
|
glucose, lipids, creatinine, urea
|
|
Ductus deferens (vas deferens)
|
the emerging end of the epididymis, ascends along the posterior side of the testis medial to the epididymis and become associated with the blood vessels and nerves that supply the testis
|
|
_______ receives the ovulated oocyte and provide a site for fertilization
|
Uterine tubes (fallopian tubes( and oviducts
|
|
Spermatic cord
|
a structure conssisting of the ductus deferens, the testicular artery and venous plexus, lymphatic vessels, nerves, fibrous remnant of the process vaginallis
|
|
electrolytes
|
chemical compounds that dissociate into ions in water
typically include: inorganic salts inorganic and organic acids and bases some proteins |
|
External and Internal spermatic fascia
|
external and internal connective tissue layers the surround the spermatic cord
|
|
The uterine tubes empty into the superlateral region of the uterus via the _____.
|
isthmus
|
|
Ampulla
|
an enlargement at the end of the ductus deferens
|
|
why do electrolytes have greater osmotic power than nonelectrolytes?
|
b/c water moves according to osmotic gradients, from areas of less osmolality to areas of greater osmolality, electrolytes have the greatest ability to cause fluid shifts.
|
|
Ejaculatory duct
|
a short duct leading from the seminal vesicle and joining the ampulla of the ductus deferens;
project into the prostata gland and end by opening into the urethra |
|
The uterine tubes expand distally around the ovary forming the ______.
|
ampulla
|
|
Male urethra
|
extends from the urinary bladder to the distal end of the penis;
passageway for male reproductive fluids and urine; divided into three parts, prostatic, membranous, and spongy |
|
chief cation and anion of ECF
|
cation - Na+
anion - Cl- |
|
Prostatic urethra
|
a section of the male urethra that is connected to the urinary bladder and passes through the prostate gland;
ejaculatory ducts and other ducts join the urethra here |
|
The ampulla ends in the funnel-shaped, ciliated infundibulum containing fingerlike projections called_______.
|
fimbriae
|
|
Membranous urethra
|
shortest part of the urethra;
extends from the prostate gland through the perineum |
|
how much Na+ and Cl- ions does ICF contain?
|
small amounts in comparison to ECF.
|
|
Spongy urethra
|
the longest part of the urethra;
extends from the membranous urethra through the length of the penis |
|
The uterine tubes have no contact with the ovaries and the ovulated oocyte is cast into the _______ cavity.
|
peritoneal
|
|
Penis
|
male copulatory organ
|
|
most abundant cation and anion in ICF
|
cation - K+
anion - HPO4- |
|
Corpora cavernosa
|
two erectile columns that form the dorsum and sides of the penis; during erection, these fill with blood
|
|
What causes the currents to carry the oocyte into the uterine tube?
|
beating cilia onthe fimbriae
|
|
Corpus spongiosum
|
erectile column that forms the ventral portion of the penis; expands to form a cap called the glans penis; urethra passes through
|
|
does ICF or ECF contain the most soluble prot's
|
ICF contains three times the amount of soluble prot's
|
|
Glans penis
|
a cap formed over the distal end of the penis by the corpus spongiosum
|
|
Visceral peritoneum that supports the uterine tubes
|
Mesosalpinx
|
|
External urethral orifice
|
the external opening of the urehtra
|
|
male accessory sex glands
|
seminal vesicles
prostate bulbourethral glands |
|
Seminal vesicles
|
sac-shaped glands located next to the ampullae of the ductus deferentia; have capsules containing fibrous connective tissue and smooth muscle cells
|
|
Hollow, thick-walled organ located in the pelvis anterior to the rectum and posterosuperior to the bladder.
|
Uterus
|
|
Prostate gland
|
consists of both glandular and muscular tissue and is about the size and shape of a walnut; dorsal to the symphysis pubis at the base of the urinary bladder
|
|
temperature of testes
|
a/b 3 degrees celcius lower than rest of body
impt for sperm viability |
|
Bulbourethral glands
|
a pair of small glands located near the membranous part of the urethra; small ducts from each gland unite to form a single duct which enters the songy urethra at the base of the penis
|
|
The major portion on the uterus is called the
|
body
|
|
Semen
|
a composite of sperm cells and secretions from the male reproductive glands;
60% from the seminal vesicles 30% from the prostate gland 5% from the testes 5% from the bulbourehtral glands |
|
muscles associated w/ testes
|
dartos
cremaster |
|
Emission
|
discharge and acculmulation of semen into the prostatic urethra; sympathetic reactions cause peristalsis, causing semen to be released in to the prostatic urethra
|
|
The rounded region superior to the entrance of the uterine tubes is called the
|
fundus
|
|
Ejaculation
|
the forceful expulsion of semen from the urethra caused by the contraction of the urethra, the skeletal muscles in the floow of the pelvis, and the muscles at the base of the penis
|
|
dartos muscle
|
wrinkles the scrotal skin
layer of SM in superficial facia |
|
What type of cells keep the oocyte and the sperm nourished and moist?
|
nonciliated cells
|
|
cremaster muscle
|
elevates the testes
arise from internal oblique muscle bands of skeletal muscle |
|
This is the narrowed region between the body and the cervix.
|
Isthmus
|
|
2 tunics of testes
|
tunica vaginalis - outer tunic
tunica albuginea - fibrous capsule deep to tunica vaginalis. |
|
The narrow neck which projects into the vagina inferiorly
|
Cervix
|
|
fibrous capsule of testes
|
tunica albuginea
|
|
What are the primary effects of LH on the male reproductive system?
|
binds to interstital cells in the testes and causes them to increase their rate of testosterone synthesis and secretion
|
|
The cavity of the cervix that communcates with the bagina via the external os and the uterine body via the interal os
|
cervical canal
|
|
What are the primary effects of FSH on the male reproductive system?
|
binds primarily to sustentacular cells in the seminiferous tubules and promotes sperm cell development
|
|
seminiferous tubules
|
sperm factories
surrounded my myoid cells - help squeeze sperm and fluids out of testes |
|
Testosterone
|
the major male hormone secreted by the testes; classified as an andorgen because it stimulates the development of male reproductive organs; also regulates GnRH secretion
|
|
These glands secrete mucus that covers the external os and blocks sperm entry except during midcycle.
|
Cervical glands
|
|
Inhibin
|
a hormone secreted by the sustentacular cells of the seminiferous tubules; inhibits FSH secretion from the anterior pituitary
|
|
seminiferous tubules converge to form:
|
tubule rectus
conveys sperm to rete testis |
|
Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)
|
a gonadotropin-like hormone secreted by the placenta;
stimulates the synthesis and secretion of testosterone by the fetal testes before birth |
|
This is the portion of the broad ligament that supports the uterus laterally
|
Mesometrium
|
|
Puberty
|
the age at which individuals become capable of sexual reproduction;
during this stage, the hypothalamus becomes much less sensitive to the inhibitory effects of androgens, GnRH secretions increase |
|
sperm are stored where?
|
tail of epididymis
|
|
What are some of the effets of testosterone on the body?
|
hair growth, coarser skin, increase the rate of sebaceous secretions in facial region, hypertrophy of larynx, reduced tension in vocal cords, general stimulatory effect on metabolism, sodium retention, promotes protein synthesis, rapid bone growth
|
|
This extends from the cervix and superior part of the vagina to the lateral walls of the pelvis.
|
Lateral cervical ligaments
|
|
Orgasm
|
a climactic sensation that occurs during the male sexual act, associated with ejaculation
|
|
interstitial cells
|
also leydig cells
in soft connective tissue surrounding seminiferous tubules. produce androgens, most importantly testosterone. |
|
Resolution
|
Post-ejaculatory phase in which the penis becomes flaccid, an overall feeling of satisfaction exists, and the male is unable to achieve erection
|
|
These are paired ligaments that secure the uterus to the sacrum
|
Uterosacral ligaments
|
|
Impotence
|
the inability to achieve or maintain an erection and to accomplish the male sexual act
|
|
interstitial cells, or leydig cells, produce:
|
androgens, most importantly testosterone.
|
|
Describe the pathway by which the male sexual response is executed.
|
action potentials are conducted by sensory neurons from the genitals through the pudendal nerve to the sacral region of the spinal cord where reflexes are conducted;
action potentials from the cerebrum reinforce the sacral reflexes; nerve fibers release ACh and NO (smooth muscle relaxation) |
|
The uterine wall is composed of three layers. What are they?
|
perimetrium - outermost layer, the visceral peritoneum
Myometrium - middle layer, interlacing layers of smooth muscle Endometrium- mucosal lining of the uterine cavity |
|
Erection
|
parasympathetic; the first major component of the male sexual act; occurs when the penis becomes enlarged and rigid from blood filling the sinusoids of erectile tissue; results from ACh and NO release from pudendal nerve
|
|
how does the testiculear blood supply help regulate testicular temperature?
|
cooler venous blood in the pampiniform venous plexus absorbs heat from arterial blood.
|
|
Broad ligament
|
an extension of the peritoneum that spreads out on both sides of the uterus and to which the ovaries and uterine tubes are attached;
|
|
The is the outermost layer of the uterine wall
|
perimetrium
|
|
Ovaries
|
female reproductive organs;
site of oogenesis |
|
corpus spongiosum
|
erectile tissue
surrounds urethra forms glans distally and bulb of the penis proximally |
|
Mesovarium
|
a peritoneal fold that attaches each ovary to the posterior surface of the brad ligament
|
|
This is the middle layer of the uterine wall
|
Myometrium
|
|
Suspensory ligament
|
extends from the mesovarium to the body wall, helping to support the ovaries
|
|
corpus cavernosa
|
makes up most of penis
bound by fibrous tunica albuginea forms crura of the penis proximally |
|
Ovarian ligament
|
attaches the ovary to the superior margin of the uterus
|
|
This is the mucosal lining of the uterine cavity
|
Endometrium
|
|
efferent ductules location
|
head of epididymis
|
|
This undergoes cyclic changes in response to ovarian hormones
|
Srtatum functionalis
|
|
site of sperm maturation and storage.
|
epididymis
|
|
This forms a new functionalis after menstration ends and does not respnd to ovarian hormones
|
Stratum basalis
|
|
trace the route of ductus deferens from testes
|
begins as part of spermatic cord from epididymis
passes thru inguinal canal loops around ureter passes down back of urinary bladder. |
|
The thin-walled tube lying between the bladder and the rectum, extending from the cervix to the exterior of the body is the
|
vagina
|
|
what composes the spermatic cord?
|
ductus deferens, blood vessels, lymph vessels, cremaster muscle, nerves
|
|
The urethra is embedded in the ______ wall
|
anterior
|
|
location of seminal vesicles
|
posterior urinary bladder surface
|
|
This provides a passageway for birth, menstrual flow, and is the organ of copulation.
|
Vagina
|
|
seminal vesicle secretion
|
an alkaline viscous fluid
fructose - E for sperm prostaglandins - for sperm motility and viability semeogelin - a coagulation protein. accouts for 70% of semen volume. |
|
Name the three coats of the vaginal wall
|
Fibroelastic adventitia
smooth muscle muscularis Stratisfied squamous mucosa |
|
prostaglandins
|
role in sperm motility and viability.
causes muscular contractions of female reproductive organs |
|
Mucosa near the vaginal orifice forms an incomplete partition called the ______.
|
hymen
|
|
This is the upper end of the vagina surrounding the cervix.
|
vaginal fornix
|
|
This lies external to the vagina and includes the mons pubis, labia, clitoris, and vestibular structures
|
vulva (pudendum)
|
|
This round, fatty area overlying the pubic symphysis is the
|
mons pubis
|
|
Enlongated, hair-covered, fatty skin folds homoolgous to the male scrotum
|
Labia majoria
|
|
Hair free skin folds lying within the labia majora; homologous to the ventral penis
|
Labia minora
|
|
These are pea sized gland flanking the vagina, homologous to the bulbourethral glands and keep the vestibule moist and lubricated
|
Vulva
|
|
Erectile tissue hooded by the prepuse and the exposed portion is called the glans
|
Clitoris
|
|
Diamond-shaped region between the pubic arch and coccyx and bordered by the ischial tuberosities laterally
|
Perineum
|
|
These are modifed sweat glands consisting of 15-25 lobes that radiate around and open at the nipple
|
mammary glands
|
|
Pigmented skin surrounding the nipple
|
areola
|
|
Lobes contain ____ _____ that produce milk in lactating women
|
glandular alveoli
|
|
What glands pass milk to lactiferous ducts, which open to the outside
|
Compound alveolar glands
|
|
Breast cancer usually arises from the ______ cells of the ducts.
|
dpithelial
|
|
This is the production of female sex cells by meiosis
|
oogenesis
|
|
When is the total supply of eggs determined?
|
by the time she is born
|
|
In the fetal period, oogonia multiply by
|
Mitosis and store nutrients
|
|
These follicles appear as oogonia are transfomred into primary oocytes
|
Primoridal follicles
|
|
Primary oocytes begin meiosis but stall in
|
Prophase I
|
|
At puberty, one activated primary oocyte produces two _____ cells
|
haploid
|
|
The first two haploid cells are
|
first polar body
secondary oocyte |
|
The secondary oocyte arrests in metaphase II and is _____.
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ovulated
|
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If penetrated by sperm, the second oocyte completed ______.
|
meiosis II
|
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The second oocyte completed meiois II and yields ______ and ______.
|
one large ovum (the functional gamete)
A tiny second polar body |
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The ovarian cycle is a monthly series of events associated with _____________.
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the maturation of an egg
|
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This is the period of follicle growth (days 1 - 14)
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follicular phase
|
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This is the period of corpus luteum activity (days 14 - 28)
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Luteal phase
|
|
When does ovulation occur?
|
midcycle
|
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The primary follicle becomes a secondary follicle when
|
The theca folliculi and granulosa cells cooperate to produce estrogens
The zona pellucidaforms around the oocyte The antrum is formed |
|
The secondary follicle becomes a vesicular folllicle when
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The antrum expands and isolates the ocyte and the corona radiata
The full size follicle bulges from the external surface of the ovary The primary oocyte completes meiosis 1, and the stage is set for ovulation |
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When does ovulation occur?
|
When the ovary wall ruptures and expels the secondary oocyte
|
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A twinge of pain sometimes felt at ovulation
|
Mittelschmerz
|
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1 - 2 percent of ovulations release more than one secondary oocyte, which if fertilized, results in
|
fraternal twins
|
|
In this phase, after ovulation, the ruptured follicle collapses, granulosa cells enlarge, and along with internal thecal cells, form the corupus leteum.
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Luteal Phase
|
|
What does the corpus leteum secrete?
|
progesterone and estrogen
|
|
If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteium degenerages in 10 days and leaves a scar known as
|
corpus albicans
|
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If pregnancy occurs, the corpus luteum produces hormones until the _____________.
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placenta takes over
|
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During childhood, ovaries grow and secrete small amounts of estrogens that inhibit the hypothalamic release of ______
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GnRH
|
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As puberty nears, GnRH is released: FSH and LH are released by the _________, which act on the ovaries
|
pituitary
|
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The ovarian cycle continues until an adult cyclic pattern is achieved and _________ occurs
|
menarche
|
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Day 1 of the ovairan cycle, GnRH stimualtes the release of _________.
|
FSH and LH
|
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What does FSH and LH stimulage?
|
The follicle growth and maturation, and low-level estrogen release
|
|
This inhibits the release of FSH and LH
|
rising estrogen levels
|
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Estrogen levels increase during the ovarian cycle and high estrogen levels have a positive feedback effect on the pituitary, causing a sudden surge of ____.
|
LH
|
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The LH spike stimulates the primary oocyte to complete _________, and the secondary oocyte continues on to ___________.
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meiosis I
metaphase II |
|
LH triggers ovualtion on what day?
|
day 14
|
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LH transforms the ruptured follicle into a corpus luteum, which produces ______, _______, and _______.
|
inhibin
progesterone estrogen |
|
During what days does the decline of the ovarian hormones occur, the blockade of FSH and LH, and the cycle starts anew
|
Days 26 - 28
|
|
Series of cyclic changes that the uterine edometrium goes through each month in response to ovarian hormones in the blood.
|
uterine (menstral) cycle
|
|
Days 1 - 5
|
Menstrual phase - uterus sheds all but the deepest part of the endometrium
|
|
Days 6 - 14
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Proliferative (preovulatory) phase - endometrium rebuilds itself
|
|
Days 15 - 28
|
Secretory (postovulatory) phase - endometrium prepares for implantation of the embryo
|
|
If fertilization does not occur, progesterone levels fall, depriving the endometrium of hormonal support
|
mensus
|
|
Estrogen levels rise during
|
puberty
|
|
Secondary sex characteristics consist of
|
growth of breasts
increased deposition of subcutaneous fat, especially int he hips and breasts Widening and lightening of the pelvis Growth of axillary and pubic hair |
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the clitoris, vaginal mucosa and breasts engorge with blood consist of
|
female sexual responses
|
|
Activity of these glands lubricate the vestibule and facilitates entry of the penis
|
vestibular glands
|
|
accompanied by muscle tension, increase in pulse rate and blood pressure, and rhythmical contractions of the uterus is
|
an orgasm
|
|
Genetic sex is determined by the sex chromosomes that each _____ contains
|
gamete
|
|
What are the two sex chromosomes?
|
X and Y
|
|
Females have ______ sex chromosome(s)
|
2
|
|
What are the mens sex chromosomes?
|
1 - X
1 - Y |
|
All eggs have an ____ chromosome; half the sperm have an ____ and the other half a _____.
|
all eggs - X
1/2 sperm X other 1/2 Y |
|
This gene iniates testes development and determines maleness
|
A single gene on the Y chromosome; SRY gene
|
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a secondary oocyte can be fertilized for a/b how long after ovulation?
|
24 hours
|
|
sperm remain viable for how long inside the female reproductive tract?
|
48 hours
|
|
when can intercourse result in fertilization?
|
there is a/b a 3 day window for fertilization to occur.
2 days before ovulation 1 day after ovulation |
|
where does fertilization usually take place?
|
the outer 1/3 of the uterine tube
can occur in the abdominal cavity |
|
functional change sperm undergo in the female tract
|
capacitation
|
|
capacitation
|
functional change sperm undergo in the female tract.
membr. around acrosome becomes fragile and its enzymes are released. this prevents premature release of enzymes and autolysis of sperm in the male tract. |
|
dizygotic twins
|
fraternal twins
occurs when two seperate eggs are ovulated maybe different sexes |
|
monozygotic twins
|
identical twins
occurs when a single egg is fertilized but dividing cells break into two groups and develop into two individuals. genetically identical. |
|
outer layer of cells of the blastocyst
|
trophoblast
|
|
fluid filled cavity of blastocyst
|
blastocele
|
|
blastocyst structure
|
outer layer of cells - trophoblast
inner cell mass fluid filled cavity - blastocele |
|
forms the embryo
|
most of the inner cell mass of trophoblast
|
|
forms membranes of fetal portion of placenta
|
trophoblast and part of the inner cell mass
|
|
implantation
|
blastocyst remains free in uterus for a short time, during which the zona pellucida disintegrates.
blastocyst is nourished by glycogen for endometrium glands. a/b 6 days after ovulation, blastocyst implants - orients cell mass towards endometrium and secretes enzymes which allow it to penetrate, or digest, the endometrium wall. this nourishes blastocyst for a/b 1 wk after implantation. |
|
where can implantation occur?
|
uterus, uterine tube, cervix, abdominal cavity
implantation anywhere outside the uterus is called an ectopic pregnancy. |
|
hCG
|
human chorionic gonadotropin
blastocyst begins to secrete hCG 8-12 days after fertilization |
|
what is the function of hCG?
|
keeps the corpus luteum active until the placenta can produce estrogens and progesterone.
precense of hCG is basis for pregnancy test. |
|
inner cell mass forms what 2 cavities?
|
yolk sac
amniotic cavity |
|
yolk sac
|
1 of 2 inner cell mass cavities
produces blood cells and future sex cells |
|
amniotic cavity
|
1 of 2 inner cell mass cavities
the cavity in which the embryo floats. fluid is prod'd from fetal urine, secretions from the skin, respiratory tract, and amniotic membr's. |
|
embryonic disc
|
in b/t the yolk sac and amniotic cavity.
gives rise to 3 primary germ layers: endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm |
|
gestation period
|
divided into 3 trimesters
by day 35 the heart is beating and eye and limb buds are present. placenta is functioning by end of third month. |
|
first trimester of gestation period
|
individual begins as a zygote, then morula, blastocyst, and after implantation is an embryo.
embryonic phase of development lasts from fertilization to 8th wk of gestation, when it becomes a fetus. |
|
the placenta
|
the chorion develops into the fetal part of the placenta.
the chorionic villi connect the fetal circulation to the placenta. composed of both fetal and maternal tissue |
|
functions of the placenta
|
transfer gases
transport nutrients excretion of wastes hormone production - a temporary endocrine organ - estrogen and progesterone formation of an incomplete, selective barrier - alcohol, steroids, narcotics, anasthetics, some antibiotic and some organisms can cross. |
|
effects of pregnancy on the mother
|
reprod. organs become incr. vascular (chadwick's sign)
incr. levels of estrogen and progesterone can cause nausea and vomiting. human placental lactogen prepares breast for lactation glucose-sparing effect. human chorionic thyrotropin incr. maternal metabolism. parathyroid hormone and vit. D levels incr., incr. intake of calcium. B.V. incr. 25-40% |
|
quickening
|
first movement of the fetus felt by the mother.
usually during 4th or 5th mo of preg. during last mo, fetus becomes less active, probably due to lack of space. |
|
intermittent, painless contractions the uterus undergoes coming a/b 10-20 minutes apart:
|
Braxton-Hicks contractions
|
|
Braxton-Hicks contractions
|
intermittent, painless contractions the uterus undergoes coming a/b 10-20 minutes apart
b/c more frequent as gestiation progresses and can be mistaken for onset of labor. cervix begins to thin and dilate. |
|
rising levels of fetal cortisol cause what?
|
placenta to release estrogen.
|
|
what triggers the inflammatory response in the cervix?
|
surfactant protein A
|
|
near labor, estrogen stimulates what?
|
myometrial cells to form oxytocin receptors
antagonizes quieting effect of progesterone fetal cells prod oxytocin and placenta prod progesterone |
|
parturition
|
labor
|
|
labor - stage 1
|
the period from the onset of true labor contractions until the cervix is completely dilated at 10 cm.
The uterine contractions cause the cervix to dilate, and the amniotic sac may rupture. Usually lasts 6 – 24 hours depending on the number of previous deliveries. |
|
labor - stage 2
|
period from maximal cervical dilation until birth of baby.
contractions b/c more frequent and intense. |
|
labor - stage 3
|
The expulsion of the placenta.
Usually occurs within 15 minutes after the birth of the baby, but can range from 5 to 60 minutes. |
|
birth process mechanism
|
fetal head is forces toward cervix.
cervix is stretched. stretch receptors are stimulated. reflex is elicited that causes stronger uterine contractions. fetus is moved downward. |
|
ICF composes what percent of total water volume?
|
63%
|
|
ECF composes what % total water volume?
Of this, how much is interstitial and plasma? |
37%, a/b 1/3
interstitial fluid - 80% of ECF blood plasma - 20% of ECF |
|
the pressure of fluids is:
|
hydrostatic pressure
|
|
the avg. adult takes in a/b how much water/day?
|
2500mL/day
|
|
what keeps us from taking in too much water?
|
wetting of the mouth and stretching of the stomach or intestines decreases thirst.
|
|
what effect does water absorbtion have on blood osmotic pressure?
|
decrease
|
|
regulation of water output
|
Through regulating urine formation
ADH – production stimulated by ↑ blood tonicity of decrease in volume. Acts on distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts of kidney – permits reabsorption of water Aldosterone – production is stimulated by angiotensin II through renin production Causes sodium ( and water) to be reabsorbed ANP – causes sodium (and water) loss when pressure in right atrium is too high |
|
water imbalance
|
Dehydration is the imbalance seen most often.
Prolonged diarrhea or vomiting Excessive sweating |
|
hypotonic hydration
|
also water toxicity
If lose water by sweating, we also lose sodium. Rapidly drinking large quantities of water decreases plasma sodium concentration initially, then see decrease in ISF as well. Water is drawn into cells This increases ISF tonicity, and water is drawn from blood Add salt when replacing fluids like this! |
|
overhydration
|
Can occur if I.V. fluids are given too rapidly or in too large amounts.
Extra fluid puts strain on heart |
|
a decrease in blood proteins can be caused by:
|
Dietary deficiency in proteins
Liver failure Blockage of lymphatic system Increased capillary permeability -Burns, infection |
|
water movement back into capillaries depends on:
|
concentration of plasma proteins
|
|
edema
|
large amounts of fluid in intercellular spaces
|
|
of the 3 main fluid compartments (IVF, ICF, ISF) which varies the most?
|
interstitial fluid (ISF)
|
|
edema can be caused by:
|
Decrease in plasma proteins
Retention of electrolytes, esp. Na+ Increase in capillary blood pressure |
|
electrolyte balance
|
Cations – positively charged ions
Anions – negatively charged ions Body fluids also contain charged organic molecules Only a small percentage of molecules in fluids are non-electrolytes: glucose, urea, creatinine |
|
functions of electrolytes
|
Certain ions control the osmosis of water between body compartments
Ions help maintain the acid-base balance necessary for cellular activity Ions carry electric current, which allows for action potentials and secretion of neurotransmitters Several ions are cofactors needed for the optimal activity of enzymes |
|
sources of electrolyte intake
|
Food and water
Produced by metabolism Salt craving |
|
sources of electrolyte loss
|
Sweat
Feces Urine |
|
osmolarity
|
The total concentration of dissolved particles determines osmolarity.
Glucose – one dissolved particle NaCl – dissolves into two particles One mole of NaCl = 2 osmoles Osmoles/L = osmolarity of solution |
|
sodium (Na+)
|
90 % of extracellular cations and half the osmolarity of extracellular solutions
Necessary for action potentials in nerve & muscle cells Aldosterone increases reabsorption from DCT and collecting ducts ↓ blood volume, ↓ extracellular Na+ ,↑ extracellular K+ ANP causes loss of Na+ |
|
potassium (K+)
|
Most numerous intracellular cation
Membrane potential and repolarization Controlled by aldosterone – causes loss of K+ in urine |
|
calcium (Ca++)
|
Part of bone, most abundant mineral in body. 98% of Ca is in bone
Extracellular cation Needed for blood clotting, nerve and muscle function PTH causes reabsorption of bone and increases reabsorption from G.I tract and glomerular filtrate Calcitonin inhibits osteoclasts and stimulates osteoblast, so calcium is removed from blood |
|
chloride (Cl-)
|
Most common extracellular anions
Cl- diffuses easily between compartments – can help balance charges (RBC’s) Parietal cells in stomach secrete Cl- & H+ Aldosterone indirectly adjusts Cl- when it increases the reabsorption of Na+ - Cl- follows the Na+ |
|
bicarbonate (HCO3-)
|
Part of the body’s chief buffer and transports CO2 in blood stream.
CO2 + H2O ↔H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO3- The kidneys are the main regulators of bicarbonate: they form bicarb when levels are low and excrete it when levels are high. |
|
phosphate (PO4)
|
Like calcium, most of the phosphate is found in the bones.
15% is ionized Found in combination with lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids and ATP. Three different forms Part of the phosphate buffer system PTH causes phosphate to be released from bones and to be excreted by the kidneys. Calcitonin removes phosphate by encouraging bone formation. |
|
acid-base balance
|
pH – negative log of H+ concentration
Affects functioning of proteins (enzymes) Can affect concentrations of other ions Modify hormone actions (proteins) |
|
acid intake
|
foods
cellular metabolism |
|
strenghts of acids and bases
|
Acids and bases that ionize (break apart) completely are strong acids and bases. (HCl; NaOH)
Acids and bases that do not completely dissociate in solution are weak acids and bases. (lactic acid, carbonic acid) Remember, blood needs to stay between 7.35 and 7.45 for the body to function properly. Since more acids than bases are formed, pH balance is mainly a matter of controlling excess H+. |
|
control of acid-base balance
|
Buffer systems
Exhalation of carbon dioxide Kidney excretion |
|
buffers
|
Are pairs of chemical substances that prevent a sharp change in the pH of a solution.
Buffers exchange strong acids for weaker acids that do not release as much H+ and thus change the pH less |
|
bicarbonate buffer system
|
NaHCO3 + H2CO3
sodium bicarbonate carbonic acid Addition of a strong acid: HCl + NaHCO3 → H2CO3 + NaCl Carbonic acid does not dissociate completely, and pH is changed much less. Addition of a strong base: NaOH + H2CO3 → NaHCO3 + H2O Water dissociates very little, and pH remains nearly the same. |
|
bicarbonate ion:carbonic acid buffer
|
Usually the body is called upon to buffer weaker organic acids, such as lactic acid.
Carbonic acid is formed, and amount of bicarbonate ion decreases. Blood needs to maintain a 20:1 ratio of bicarbonate ion : carbonic acid. H+ concentration increases slightly pH drops slightly |
|
carbonic acid
|
Carbonic acid is the most abundant acid in the body because it is constantly being formed by buffering fixed acids and by:
H2O + CO2 ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO3- |
|
phosphate buffer system
|
Is present in extracellular and intracellular fluids, most important in intracellular fluids and renal tubules.
H+ + HPO42- → H2PO4- monohydrogen dihydrogen phosphate phosphate OH- + H2PO4- → H2O + HPO42- |
|
protein buffer system
|
The most abundant in body cells and plasma.
Carboxyl group -COOH ↔ -COO- + H+ Amino group –NH2 ↔ -NH3+ Amphoteric molecules Hemoglobin also acts as a buffer |
|
respiratory mechanisms - exhalation of CO2
|
Because carbonic acid can be eliminated by breathing out CO2 it is called a volatile acid.
Body pH can be adjusted this way in about 1-3 minutes pH also affects breathing rate Powerful eliminator of acid, but can only deal with carbonic acid. |
|
kidney excretion of H+
|
Metabolic reactions produce large amounts of fixed acids.
Kidneys can eliminate larger amounts of acids than the lungs Can also excrete bases Can excrete acids while conserving bicarbonate ion Can produce more bicarbonate ion Kidneys are the most effective regulators of pH; if kidneys fail, pH balance fails |
|
acid/base regulators work at different rates. which works the fastest, slowest?
|
Buffers are the first line of defense because they work almost instantaneously.
Secondary defenses take longer to work: Respiratory mechanisms take several minutes to hours Renal mechanisms may take several days |
|
pH imbalances
|
The normal blood pH range is 7.35 – 7.45
Any pH below this range is considered to be a condition of acidosis Any pH above this range is considered to be a condition of alkalosis The body response to acid-base imbalance is called compensation: Compensation may be complete if the blood pH is brought back to normal, or partial if it is still outside the norms. |
|
compensation
|
The body response to acid-base imbalance is called compensation: Compensation may be complete if the blood pH is brought back to normal, or partial if it is still outside the norms.
|
|
respiratory problems
|
Respiratory acidosis is a carbonic acid excess (blood CO2 is too high)
Respiratory alkalosis is a carbonic acid deficit (blood CO2 is too low) Compensation would occur through the kidneys |
|
metabolic problems
|
Metabolic acidosis is a bicarbonate deficit
Metabolic alkalosis is a bicarbonate excess Compensation would occur through changes in the depth and rate of respiration. |