Human Physiology

Front 1

What does the Central Nervous System (CNS) consist of?

Back 1

Brain & Spinal Cord

Front 2

What does the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) consist of?

Back 2

Spinal Nerves & Cranial Nerves

Front 3

Functions of the Central Nervous System (CNS)

Back 3

–Subconsciously regulate your
internal environment by neural means
–Experience emotions
–Voluntarily control your movements
–Be aware of your body and surroundings
–Engage in other higher cognitve processes such as thought and memory

Front 4

Brain Components

Back 4

Midbrain, Forebrain, & Hindbrain

Front 5

Cerebrum

Back 5

-Largest portion of brain
-Divided into 2 halves:
Right and Left Cerebral Hemispheres
-Connected by Corpus callosum
-Inner core houses basal nuclei

Front 6

Cerebral Cortex

Back 6

-Outer shell of grey matter that covers each hemisphere
-Central core of white matter
-Each half is divided into 4 major lobes: Occipital, Temporal, Parietal, and Frontal

Front 7

Frontal Lobe

Back 7

Contain the Motor cortices
-Voluntary movement of skeletal muscle

Front 8

Parietal Lobe

Back 8

Contain the Somatosensory cortices
-Perception of senses (touch, pressure, heat, cold, pain)

Front 9

Temporal Lobe

Back 9

Auditory Cortex
-perception and interpretaion of auditory information

Front 10

Occipital Lobe

Back 10

Visual Cortex
-Perception and interpretaion of visual images

Front 11

Brain: Left Hemisphere

Back 11

-Usually dominant
-Language
-Analyitcal Ability

Front 12

Brain: Right Hemisphere

Back 12

Spacial comprehension
(reading facial expressions)

Front 13

Broca’s Area

Back 13

Coordinates complex fine­‐motor functions involved in speech (control of tongue, lips, etc.)

Front 14

Wernicke’s Area

Back 14

Responsible for ability to comprehend language and formulate words

Front 15

Broca’s Aphasia

Back 15

-Speech is poorly articulated
-Understand what is spoken, but have difficulty responding

Front 16

Wernicke’s Aphasia

Back 16

-Speak easily, using real and made‐up words
-Can’t understand spoken or written language
-Thus, oral and written language (hearing and vision) must project to Wernicke’s area
-Wernicke’s area projects to Broca’s

Front 17

Limbic System

Back 17

-Group of cerebral nuclei
-Functions
Emotions
Aggression
Fear
Sex drive and behavior
Goal-­Directed Behavior
• Reward and punishment

Front 18

Short Term Memory

Back 18

(<30 sec)
-Hippocampus required for retention

Front 19

Long Term Memory

Back 19

(>30 sec)
-Non-­declarative: memory of simple skills and conditioning
-Declaraitve: memory of facts and events
-Storedin various regions

Front 20

Basal Ganglia

Back 20

Primary functions:
-Inhibiting muscle tone throughout the body
-Modifying ongoing activity in motor pathways
-Release Dopamine

Front 21

Brain Stem

Back 21

Consists of:
-medulla
-pons
-midbrain

Front 22

Reticular Formation

Back 22

-Network of neurons in medulla, pons, midbrain, thalamus and hypothalamus

Front 23

Medulla Oblongata

Back 23

Contains:
Cardiac Center
-regulates HR and contractile force
Respiratory Center
-regulates respiration
Vasomotor Center
-controls blood vessel diameter and blood pressure

Front 24

Cerebellum

Back 24

-2nd largest structure in brain
-Planning, initiating, and timing motor movements
-Plays key role in learning skilled motor tasks

Front 25

Spinal Cord Structure

Back 25

-White matter forms the outer surface of the spinal cord
-Gray matter forms interior
-Spinal nerves join with spinal cord through spinal nerve roots

Front 26

Dorsal Root

Back 26

-Carry afferent axons into the spinal cord
-Dorsal root ganglion
Contains afferent cell bodies

Front 27

Ventral Root

Back 27

-Carry efferent axons out of spinal cord

Front 28

Ascending tracts (Spinal Cord)

Back 28

-Carries sensory information up to the brain

Front 29

Descending Tracts (Spinal Cord)

Back 29

-Carries sensory information down from the brain

Front 30

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Back 30

-Technique that produces a three-­dimensional image or picture of functional processes in the body
-Brain metabolism
-Injection of radionucleotide tracer

Front 31

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Back 31

-Protons (H+) are charged and spin
-Use of magnet

Front 32

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Back 32

-Brain Waves

Front 33

Cranial Nerves

Back 33

-12 Pairs
-Arise from Brain
-Carry sensory, motor, or both

Front 34

Spinal Nerves

Back 34

-31 pairs named by location
-Spinal nerves join with spinal cord through spinal roots (Dorsal and Ventral Root)
-Contain both motor and sensory functions

Front 35

Somatic nervous system

Back 35

-Voluntary
-Innervates skeletal muscle

Front 36

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Back 36

-Involuntary
-Innervates cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, exocrine/endocrine glands, and adipose tissue

Front 37

Adrenal medulla

Back 37

-modified part of sympathetic nervous system
-Stimulation of preganglionic fiber prompts secretion of hormones into blood

Front 38

Photoreceptors

Back 38

-Visible wavelengths of light
-Responsive to visible wavelengths of light

Front 39

Mechanoreceptors

Back 39

-mechanical energy

Front 40

Osmoreceptors

Back 40

-solute concentration

Front 41

Chemoreceptors

Back 41

-specific chemicals
-Smell, Taste
-O2, CO2

Front 42

Tonic Receptors

Back 42

-Do not adapt at all or adapt slowly
-CNS must continually get info. about degree of muscle length & joint position

Front 43

Phasic Receptors

Back 43

-Rapidly adapting receptors
-No longer responds to maintained stimulus
-Important to signal a change in stimulus intensity, rather than relay status quo information
•Tactile (touch) receptors in skin

Front 44

Perception

Back 44

-Conscious interpretation of external world derived from sensory input
-Pattern of nerve impulses delivered to brain

Front 45

Sensation vs Perception

Back 45

Sensation=Collection of Information
Perception=Interpretationof what it sensed

Front 46

Taste Pore

Back 46

-Opening through which fluids in mouth come into contact with surface of receptor cells

Front 47

Taste Receptor Cells

Back 47

-Modified epithelial cells
-Plasma membrane contain receptor sites that bind selectively with chemical molecules

Front 48

Tastant

Back 48

Taste provoking chemical

Front 49

Primary Tastes

Back 49

Salty: Stimulated by chemical salts, especially NaCl
-Sour: Caused by acids which contain a free hydrogen ion, H+
-Sweet: Evoked by configuration of glucose
-Bitter: Brought about by more chemically diverse group of tastants
-Umani: Meaty or savory taste

Front 50

Otoliths

Back 50

-crystals found in gelatinous substance covering stereocilia

Front 51

Sound

Back 51

-Vibration of molecules in medium
-Frequency determines pitch
-Amplitude determines loudness

Front 52

External & Middle Ear

Back 52

-Transmit sound waves to fluid-­filled inner ear, amplifying sound energy

Front 53

Inner Ear

Back 53

-Cochlea: Contains receptors for conversion of sound waves into nerve impulses

Front 54

Iris

Back 54

-Controls amount of light entering eye
-Contains sets of smooth muscle networks: Circular (or constrictor) muscle & Radial (or dilator) muscle
-Pigment in iris is responsible for eye color
-Varied flecks and lines are unique for each individual

Front 55

Pupil

Back 55

-Round opening through which light enters the eye
-Size of opening is adjusted by variable contraction of the iris muscles to admit more or less light as needed

Front 56

Accommodation

Back 56

-Ability to adjust strength of lens
-Depends on shape; regulated by ciliary muscle
-Increases strength of lens for near vision
-Change in strength and shape of lens
-Accomplished by action of ciliary muscle and suspensory ligaments
-Ciliary muscle: part of ciliary body
-Age-related reduction in accommodation ability -­presbyopia

Front 57

Retinal Layers

Back 57

-Outermost layer= rods and cones
-Middle layer=bipolar cells
-Inner layer =ganglion cells

Front 58

Photoreceptors

Back 58

-Outer segment: Detects light stimulus
-Inner segment: Metabolic machinery of cell
-Synaptic terminal: Transmits signal generated to next cells in visual pathway

Front 59

Dark Adaptation

Back 59

-Can gradually distinguish objects as you enter a dark area
-Due to the regeneration of rod photopigments that had been broken down by previous light exposure

Front 60

Light Adaption

Back 60

-Can gradually distinguish objects as you enter an area with more light
-Due to the rapid breakdown of cone photopigments

Front 61

Permissiveness

Back 61

-One hormone must be present for full exetion of another hormones effect

Front 62

Functions of the Endocrine System

Back 62

-Regulate organic metabolism and H2O and electrolyte balance
-Induce adaptive changes to help body cope with stressful situations
-Promote smooth, sequential growth and development
-Control reproduction
-Regulate red blood cell production
-Along with autonomic nervous system, control and integrate both circulation and the digestion and absorption of food

Front 63

Nonpolar Hormones

Back 63

-Steroids
• Derivatives of cholesterol
• Produced by adrenal cortex gonads
-Thyroid hormones
•Derived from tyrosine
•Produced by thyroid gland

Front 64

Polar Hormones

Back 64

-Catecholamines
-Polypeptides, proteins

Front 65

ADH (Anti­‐Diuretic Hormone, or Vasopressin)

Back 65

-Increases reabosorbtion of H2O in the Kidneys

Front 66

Oxytocin

Back 66

-Uterine contraction during childbirth
-milk letdown during breast feeding
-male function unclear

Front 67

Adrenal Cortex

Back 67

-Outer portion
-Secretes steroid hormones

Front 68

Adrenal Medulla

Back 68

-Inner portion
-Secretes catecholamines

Front 69

Permissiveness

Back 69

-One hormone must be present for full exetion of another hormones effect

Front 70

Adrenal Steroid: Mineralocorticoids

Back 70

-Mainly aldosterone
-Influence mineral balance, specifically Na+ and K+ balance

Front 71

Functions of the Endocrine System

Back 71

-Regulate organic metabolism and H2O and electrolyte balance
-Induce adaptive changes to help body cope with stressful situations
-Promote smooth, sequential growth and development
-Control reproduction
-Regulate red blood cell production
-Along with autonomic nervous system, control and integrate both circulation and the digestion and absorption of food

Front 72

Adrenal Steroid: Glucocorticoids

Back 72

-Primarily cortisol
-Major role in glucose metabolism and protein and lipid metabolism

Front 73

Nonpolar Hormones

Back 73

-Steroids
• Derivatives of cholesterol
• Produced by adrenal cortex gonads
-Thyroid hormones
•Derived from tyrosine
•Produced by thyroid gland

Front 74

Polar Hormones

Back 74

-Catecholamines
-Polypeptides, proteins

Front 75

ADH (Anti­‐Diuretic Hormone, or Vasopressin)

Back 75

-Increases reabosorbtion of H2O in the Kidneys

Front 76

Oxytocin

Back 76

-Uterine contraction during childbirth
-milk letdown during breast feeding
-male function unclear

Front 77

Adrenal Cortex

Back 77

-Outer portion
-Secretes steroid hormones

Front 78

Adrenal Medulla

Back 78

-Inner portion
-Secretes catecholamines

Front 79

Adrenal Steroid: Mineralocorticoids

Back 79

-Mainly aldosterone
-Influence mineral balance, specifically Na+ and K+ balance

Front 80

Adrenal Steroid: Glucocorticoids

Back 80

-Primarily cortisol
-Major role in glucose metabolism and protein and lipid metabolism

Front 81

Adrenal Steroid: Androgens (Sex hormones)

Back 81

-Identical or similar to those produced by gonads

Front 82

Aldosterone

Back 82

-Principal action site is on distal and collecting tubules of the kidney
-Increases Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion by kidneys
-Regulation of aldosterone secretion is largely independent of anterior pituitary control

Front 83

Cortisol

Back 83

-Stimulates gluconeogenesis
-Stimulates
protein degradation
-Facilitates lipolysis
-Plays key role in adaptation to stress
-Anti‐inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects
•Long-‐term use can result in unwanted side effects
-Displays a characteristic diurnal rhythm
-Secretion
•Regulated by negative­‐feedback loop involving hypothalamic CRH and pituitary ACTH

Front 84

Type I diabetes

Back 84

-Characterized by lack of insulin secretion

Front 85

Type II diabetes

Back 85

-Characterized by normal or even increased insulin secretion but reduced sensitivity of insulin's target cells

Front 86

Anabololism (Regulation of Metabolism)

Back 86

-During Meals
-Process Occurring:
Triglyceride Formation
Glycogen Formation
Protein Synthesis

Front 87

Catobolism (Regulation of Metabolism)

Back 87

-Between meals
-Needed for:
-Processes occurring
Glycogenolysis
Gluconeogenesis
Lipolysis
Ketogenesis

Front 88

Hyposecretion (Endocrine Dysfunction)

Back 88

-Too little hormone is secreted

Front 89

Hypersecretion (Endocrine Dysfunction)

Back 89

-Too much hormone is secreted

Front 90

Hyporesponsiveness (Endocrine Dysfunction)

Back 90

-Reduced response of the target cells

Front 91

Primary disorders (Endocrine Disorders)

Back 91

Defect in the cells that secrete the hormone

Front 92

Secondary disorders (Endocrine Disorders)

Back 92

-Too much or too ligle tropic hormone