Human Growth And Development

Front 1

Freud’s stages are psychosexual while Erik Erikson’s stages are:

Back 1

d. psychosocial

Let’s begin with an easy one. Only one choice fits the bill here.
The Freudian stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital) emphasize sexuality. Erik Erikson’s eight stages (e.g., trust vs. mistrust or integrity vs. despair) focus on social relationships and thus are described as psychosocial. To mention the other answer choices is to dispose of them. Psychometric simply refers to mental testing or measurement. Psychodiagnostic pertains to the study of personality through interpretation of behavior or nonverbal cues. In counseling, per se, it also can mean that the counselor uses the aforementioned factors or tests to label the client in a diagnostic category. Psychopharmacology studies the effects that drugs have on psychological functions.

Hint 1

a. psychometric.
b. psychodiagnostic.
c. psychopharmacological.
d. psychosocial.

Front 2

In Freudian theory instincts are emphasized. Erik Erikson is an ego psychologist. Ego psychologists:

Back 2

c. believe in man’s powers of reasoning to control behavior.

To say that the id is the bad boy of Freudian theory is to put it
mildly! The id is the seat of sex and aggression. It is not rational
or logical, and it is void of time orientation. The id is chaotic and
concerned only with the body, not with the outside world. Freud
emphasized the importance of the id, while Erikson stressed ego
functions. The ego is logical, rational, and utilizes the power of
reasoning and control to keep impulses in check. Simply put, ego
psychologists, unlike the strict Freudians, accent the ego and the
power of control. The term superego in choice “b” refers to the
moralistic and idealistic portion of the personality. The behaviorists,
mentioned in choice “d,” do not believe in concepts like
the id, the ego, and the superego. In fact, radical behaviorists do
not believe in mental constructs such as “the mind” nor do they
believe in consciousness. The behaviorist generally feels that if it can’t be measured then it doesn’t exist.

Hint 2

a. emphasize id processes.
b. refute the concept of the superego.
c. believe in man’s powers of reasoning to control behavior.
d. are sometimes known as radical behaviorists.

Front 3

The only psychoanalyst who created a developmental theory
which encompasses the entire life span was:

Back 3

a. Erik Erikson.

In Freudian theory, the final stage (i.e., the genital stage) begins
at age 12 and is said to continue throughout one’s life span.

Many scholars do not feel that Freud’s theory truly covers
the entire life span. They find it difficult to believe that
a crisis at age 12 remains the central issue until senility sets in!
Erikson, also a psychoanalyst and a disciple of Freud’s, created
a theory with eight stages in which each stage represents a psychosocial
crisis or a turning point. Since the final stage does not
even begin until age 60, most personality theorists believe that
his theory actually covers the entire life of an individual. As for
the other choices, Brill is analytic and will be discussed in the
section on career theory. Milton H. Erickson, not to be confused
with Erik Erikson, has a “c” in his name and is generally associated
with brief psychotherapy and innovative techniques in
hypnosis. Piaget is the leading name in cognitive development in
children.

Hint 3

a. Erik Erikson.
b. Milton H. Erickson.
c. A. A. Brill.
d. Jean Piaget.

Front 4

The statement, “the ego is dependent on the id,” would most
likely reflect the work of:

Back 4

b. Sigmund Freud.

In Freudian theory the id is also called the pleasure principle
and houses the animalistic instincts. The ego, which is known
as the reality principle, is pressured by the id to succumb to
pleasure or gratification regardless of consequences. Erikson, an
ego psychologist, would not emphasize the role of the id, but
rather the power of control or the ego. Jay Haley is known for
his work in strategic and problem solving therapy, often utilizing
the technique of paradox. He claims to have acquired a wealth
of information by studying the work of Milton H. Erickson, who
is mentioned in the previous question. Arnold Lazarus is considered
a pioneer in the behavior therapy movement, especially
in regard to the use of systematic desensitization, a technique
which helps clients cope with phobias. Today his name is associated
with multimodal therapy. Perry is known for his ideas
related to adult cognitive development; especially college students.
Exam hint: Throughout this text I will be giving you a
wealth of exam hints. In fact, this edition contains considerably
more exam hints than any earlier edition. These hints will often
espouse concepts that go beyond merely answering the question
because I have this uncanny notion that the extra information
can boost your exam score. On occasion, I will repeat myself
(often using a different explanation) because the concept is a
tad fuzzy to grasp or just to make certain it won’t appear to be a
foreign language if the material is presented in a unique manner
on the exam. Okay, enough filibustering, time for the first hint.
Perry is known for his ideas related to adult cognitive development;
especially regarding college students. For exam purposes
I would commit to memory the fact that Perry stresses a concept
known as dualistic thinking common to teens in which things
are conceptualized as good or bad or right and wrong. Dualism
has also been referred to as black and white thinking with virtually
no ambiguity. Noted counseling author Ed Neukrug shares
the fact that students in this stage assume that a professor has
“the answer.” As they enter adulthood and move into relativistic
thinking the individual now has the ability to perceive that
not everything is right or wrong, but an answer can exist relative
to a specific situation. In essence there is more than one way
to view the world. Finally, Robert Kegan is another well-known
figure in the area of adult cognitive development. Kegan’s model
stresses interpersonal development. Kegan’s theory is billed as a
“constructive model of development, meaning that individuals
construct reality throughout the lifespan.”

Hint 4

a. Erik Erikson.
b. Sigmund Freud.
c. Jay Haley.
d. Arnold Lazarus, William Perry, and Robert Kegan.

Front 5

Jean Piaget’s theory has four stages. The correct order from stage
1 to stage 4 is:

Back 5

c. sensorimotor, preoperations, concrete operations, formal
operations.

Piaget was adamant that the order of the stages remains
the same for any culture, although the age of the individual
could vary. It is time for your first memory device. It would
make sense that Piaget’s first stage emphasizes the senses and
the child’s motoric skills, hence the name sensorimotor stage. I
can remember the last stage by reminding myself that people
seem to be more formal as they get older. The final stage is of
course formal operations. As for the other two stages, the stage
with “pre” (i.e., preoperations) must come before the remaining
stage which is concrete operations. Do not automatically assume
that my memory devices will be the best ones for you.
Instead, experiment with different ideas. The memory strategies
presented here are simply ones which my students and I have
found helpful.

Hint 5

a. formal operations, concrete operations, preoperations,
sensorimotor.

b. formal operations, preoperations, concrete operations,
sensorimotor.

c. sensorimotor, preoperations, concrete operations, formal
operations.

d. concrete operations, sensorimotor, preoperations, formal operations.

Front 6

Some behavioral scientists have been critical of the Swiss child
psychologist Jean Piaget’s developmental research inasmuch as:

Back 6

d. his findings were often derived from observing his own
children.

Piaget was trained as a biologist and then worked with Alfred
Binet in France. Binet created the first intelligence test. Piaget’s
research methods, though very innovative, could be classified
as informal ones. He sometimes utilized games and interviews.
Who were his subjects? Well, often they were Lucienne, Laurent,
and Jaqueline: his own children. Some researchers have
been critical of his methods. Answer choice “a” is incorrect, as a
t test is a parametric statistical test used in formal experiments to
determine whether there is a significant difference between two
groups. The “t” in t test should be written with a lower case t and
is technically utilized to ascertain if the means of the groups are
significantly different from each other. When using the t test the
groups must be normally distributed. Some books will refer to
the t test as the Student’s t. Choice “b” will be discussed in much
greater detail in the section on research and evaluation. This
choice is incorrect inasmuch as Piaget generally did not rely on
statistical experiments that would be impacted by type 1 or alpha
errors.

Hint 6

a. he utilized the t test too frequently.

b. he failed to check for type 1 or alpha errors.

c. he worked primarily with minority children.

d. his findings were often derived from observing his own
children.

Front 7

A tall skinny pitcher of water is emptied into a small squatty
pitcher. A child indicates that she feels the small pitcher has less
water. The child has not yet mastered:

Back 7

b. conservation.

This is a must-know principle for any major test in counseling!
In Piaget’s theory the term conservation refers to the notion that
a substance’s weight, mass, and volume remain the same even if
it changes shape. According to Piaget, the child masters conservation
and the concept of reversibility during the concrete operations
stage (ages 7 to 11 years). Now here is a super memory
device. Both conservation and the ability to count mentally (i.e.,
without matching something up to something else physically)
both occur in the concrete operational thought stage. Fortunately,
conservation, counting, and concrete operations all start
with a “c.” How convenient! And you thought memorizing these
principles was going to be difficult. The other answer choices are
ridiculous, and that’s putting it mildly. In Piaget’s theory, symbolic
schema is a cognitive structure that grows with life experience.
A schema is merely a system which permits the child to test out
things in the physical world. Choice “c,” androgynous, is a term
which implies that humans have characteristics of both sexes.
(The Greek word andros means man while the Greek word for
women is gyne.) And, of course, by now you know that trust vs.
mistrust is Erikson’s first psychosocial stage.

Hint 7

a. symbolic schema.

b. conservation.

c. androgynous psychosocial issues.

d. trust versus mistrust.

Front 8

In Piagetian literature, conservation would most likely refer to:

Back 8

a. volume or mass.

If you missed this question go back to square one! The answer
given for question 7 clearly explains this principle. Again, a child
who has not mastered conservation does not think in a very
flexible manner. A child, for example, is shown a pie cut into 2
pieces. Next, the same pie is cut into 10 pieces. If the child has
not mastered conservation he or she will say that the pie that is
now cut into 10 pieces is bigger than when it was cut into just
2 pieces. You can’t fool a child who has mastered conservation,
however. This child will know that the pie has not changed in
volume and mass. In general, the statistical research of David
Elkind supports Piaget’s notions regarding conservation. Piaget
and Elkind report that mass is the first and most easily understood
concept. The mastery of weight is next, and finally the notion
of volume can be comprehended. (A good memory device
might be MV, such as in most valuable player. The “M,” or mass,
will come first and the “V,” or volume, will be the final letter. The
“W,” or weight, can be squeezed in-between.)

Hint 8

a. volume or mass.

b. defenses of the ego.

c. the sensorimotor intelligence stage.

d. a specific psychosexual stage of life.

Front 9

A child masters conservation in the Piagetian stage known as:

Back 9

b. concrete operations—ages 7 to 11.

Remember your memory device: conservation begins with a “c”
and so does concrete operations. The other three stages proposed
by Jean Piaget do not begin with a “c.”

Hint 9

a. formal operations—12 years and older.

b. concrete operations—ages 7 to 11.

c. preoperations—ages 2 to 7.

d. sensorimotor intelligence—birth to 2 years.

Front 10

_______ expanded on Piaget’s conceptualization of moral development.

Back 10

c. Lawrence Kohlberg

Choice “b” provides another key name. Vygotsky disagreed
with Piaget’s notion that developmental stages take place
naturally. Vygotsky insisted that the stages unfold due to
educational intervention. Kohlberg, the correct answer, is
perhaps the leading theorist in moral development. Kohlberg’s,
Erikson’s, and Maslow’s theories are said to be epigenetic in nature. Epigenetic is a biological term borrowed from embryology.
This principle states that each stage emerges from the one
before it. The process follows a given order and is systematic.
John B. Watson, mentioned in choice “d,” is the father of American
behaviorism and coined the term behaviorism in 1912.

Hint 10

a. Erik Erikson

b. The Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky

c. Lawrence Kohlberg

d. John B. Watson

Front 11

According to Piaget, a child masters the concept of reversibility in the third stage, known as concrete operations or concrete operational thought. This notion suggests:

Back 11

d. one can undo an action, hence an object can return to its
initial shape.


Choice “d” is the definition of reversibility. The word ambidextrous,
utilized in choice “b,” refers to an individual’s ability to use
both hands equally well to perform tasks.

Hint 11

a. that heavier objects are more difficult for a child to lift.

b. the child is ambidextrous.

c. the child is more cognizant of mass than weight.

d. one can undo an action, hence an object can return to its
initial shape.

Front 12

During a thunderstorm, a 6-year-old child in Piaget’s stage of
preoperational thought (stage 2) says, “The rain is following me.” This is an example of:

Back 12

a. egocentrism.

Expect to see a question on the test like this one and you can’t
go wrong. This is the typical or prototype question you will come
across in order to ascertain whether you are familiar with the
Piagetian concept of egocentrism. By egocentrism, Piaget was
not really implying the child is self-centered. Instead, egocentrism conveys the fact that the child cannot view the world from the vantage point of someone else. Choice of “d” mentions abstract thought, which does not occur until Piaget’s final or fourth
stage known as formal operations.

Hint 12

a. egocentrism.

b. conservation.

c. centration.

d. abstract thought.

Front 13

Lawrence Kohlberg suggested:

Back 13

c. three levels of morality.

Kohlberg’s theory has three levels of moral development: the
Preconventional, Conventional, and Postconventional level
which is referred to in some texts as the Personal Integrity or
Morality of Self-Accepted Principles level. Each level can be
broken down further into two stages.

Hint 13

a. a single level of morality.

b. two levels of morality.

c. three levels of morality.

d. preoperational thought as the basis for all morality.

Front 14

The Heinz story is to Kohlberg’s theory as:

Back 14

d. a typing test is to the level of typing skill mastered.

This is your first chance to wrestle with an analogy type question.
The Heinz Story is one method used by Kohlberg to assess the
level and stage of moral development in an individual. The story
goes like this:
A woman in Europe was dying of cancer. Only one drug (a form
of radium) could save her. It was discovered by a local druggist.
The druggist was charging $2,000, which was ten times his cost
to make the drug. The woman’s husband, Heinz, could not raise
the money and even if he borrowed from his friends, he could
only come up with approximately half the sum. He asked the
druggist to reduce the price or let him pay the bill later since
his wife was dying but the druggist said, “No.” The husband
was thus desperate and broke into the store to steal the drug.
Should the husband have done that? Why?
The individual’s reason for the decision (rather than the decision
itself) allowed Kohlberg to evaluate the person’s stage of moral
development. In short, the reasoning utilized to solve a moral
dilemma such as the Heinz story could be used to assess moral
development. Kohlberg’s stages and levels are said to apply to
all persons and not merely to those living in the United States.
Thus, it is evident that the Heinz Story is most like choice “d,” a
typing test. C. G. Jung, mentioned in choice “b,” is the father of
analytic psychology. Freud is the father of psychoanalysis. And
lastly, the Menninger Clinic in Kansas is a traditional psychoanalytic
foothold as well as the site of landmark work in the area of
biofeedback, which is a technique utilized to help individuals
learn to control bodily processes more effectively. And, oh yes,
before you go out and have a good cry, let me emphasize that the
story of Heinz is fictional and simply used as a research tool.

Hint 14

a. a brick is to a house.

b. Freud is to Jung.

c. the Menninger Clinic is to biofeedback.

d. a typing test is to the level of typing skill mastered.

Front 15

The term identity crisis comes from the work of:

Back 15

b. Erikson.

Let’s deal with choice “a” first, although it is incorrect. RS in our
field means religious and spiritual. Addressing RS issues
in counseling has increased in the last several years. In
fact, the number of counselors who consider themselves
spiritual (though not necessarily religious) is also climbing.
RS factors are often examined by counselors who are
attempting to integrate the practice of “positive psychology”
into their work. Positive psychology is hot right now
and I suspect you could see a question about it on your
exam. The term, coined by Abraham Maslow and popularized
by learned helplessness syndrome pioneer Martin
Seligman, refers to the study of human strengths such as
joy, wisdom, altruism, the ability to love, happiness, and
wisdom. Keep in mind that I use the correct as well as
correct answers to teach you key material. Now back to
the correct answer for this question: Erikson felt that, in an attempt
to find out who they really are, adolescents will experiment
with various roles. Choice “c” refers to another name you
should know, Alfred Adler, the founder of individual psychology,
which stresses the inferiority complex.

Hint 15

a. counselors who stress RS involvement issues with clients.

b. Erikson.

c. Adler.

d. Jung.

Front 16

Kohlberg’s three levels of morality are:

Back 16

a. preconventional, conventional, postconventional.

In the preconventional level the child responds to consequences.
In this stage reward and punishment greatly influence the behavior.
In the conventional level the individual wants to meet the
standards of the family, society, and even the nation. Kohlberg
felt that many people never reach the final level of postconventional
or self-accepted morality. A person who reaches this level
is concerned with universal, ethical principles of justice, dignity,
and equality of human rights. Kohlberg’s research indicated
that under 40% of his middle-class urban males had reached
the postconventional level. Ghandi, Socrates, and Martin Luther
King Jr. have been cited as examples of individuals who have
reached this level, in which the common good of society is a key
issue.

Hint 16

a. preconventional, conventional, postconventional.

b. formal, preformal, self-accepted.

c. self-accepted, other directed, authority directed.

d. preconventional, formal, authority directed.

Front 17

Trust versus mistrust is:

Back 17

b. Erik Erikson’s first stage of psychosocial development.

Erikson proposed eight stages and this is the first. This stage
corresponds to Freud’s initial oral-sensory stage (birth to approximately 1 year). Each of Erikson’s stages is described using bipolar or opposing tendencies. Although Piaget and Erikson are
the most prominent stage theorists, you should also become familiar with the work of Harry Stack Sullivan, who postulated the
stages of infancy, childhood, the juvenile era, preadolescence,
early adolescence, and late adolescence. Sullivan’s theory, known as the psychiatry of interpersonal relations, is similar to Erikson’s theory in that biological determination is seen as less important than interpersonal issues and the sociocultural demands of society.

Hint 17

a. an Adlerian notion of morality.

b. Erik Erikson’s first stage of psychosocial development.

c. essentially equivalent to Piaget’s concept of egocentrism.

d. the basis of morality according to Kohlberg.

Front 18

A person who has successfully mastered Erikson’s first seven
stages would be ready to enter Erikson’s final or eighth stage,

Back 18

d. integrity versus despair.

Each stage is seen as a psychosocial crisis or a turning point.
Erikson did not imply that the person either totally succeeds or
fails. Instead, he says that the individual leans toward a given
alternative (e.g., integrity or despair). The final stage begins at
about age 60. An individual who has successfully mastered all
the stages feels a sense of integrity in the sense that his or her life has been worthwhile.

Hint 18

a. generativity versus stagnation.
b. initiative versus guilt.
c. identity crisis of the later years.
d. integrity versus despair.

Front 19

In Kohlberg’s first or preconventional level, the individual’s moral behavior is guided by:

Back 19

b. consequences.

In the consequences stage (called premoral), an M&M or a slap
on the behind is more important than societal expectations and
the law. In choice “c” the term fugue state refers to an individual
who experiences memory loss (amnesia) and leaves home, often
with the intention of changing his or her job and identity.
What does this have to do with answering the question regarding
Kohlberg, you ask? Nothing, that’s decidedly why it’s the wrong
answer! In choice “d” you are confronted with the word counterconditioning.
This is a behavioristic technique in which the goal
is to weaken or eliminate a learned response by pairing it with
a stronger or desirable response. Systematic desensitization is a
good example, but more on that later.

Hint 19

a. psychosexual urges.

b. consequences.

c. periodic fugue states.

d. counterconditioning.

Front 20

Kohlberg’s second level of morality is known as conventional morality.
This level is characterized by:

Back 20

d. b and c.

At the conventional level the individual wishes to conform to
the roles in society so that authority and social order can prevail.
Kohlberg felt that attempts to upgrade the morals of our youth
have failed and he has referred to some character-building education programs as “Mickey Mouse stuff!”

Hint 20

a. psychosexual urges.

b. a desire to live up to society’s expectations.

c. a desire to conform.

d. b and c.

Front 21

Kohlberg’s highest level of morality is termed postconventional morality. Here the individual:

Back 21

c. has self-imposed morals and ethics.

Only one answer is correct here, folks. Choice “a” reflects the
Freudian theory, while choice “b” is stage 3 of Kohlberg’s theory,
which occurs at the conventional level. In the “good boy/good
girl orientation” the person is concerned with approbation and
the ability to please others in order to achieve recognition.

Hint 21

a. must truly contend with psychosexual urges.

b. has the so-called “good boy/good girl” orientation.

c. has self-imposed morals and ethics.

d. a and b.

Front 22

According to Kohlberg, level 3, which is postconventional or self-accepted moral principles,

Back 22

d. is the highest level of morality. However, some people
never reach this level.

Hedonism mentioned in choice “a” occurs in stage 2 of the preconventional
level. Here the child says to himself, “If I’m nice
others will be nice to me and I’ll get what I want.” Choice “b” actually
refers to the first stage of the preconventional level which
is the punishment versus obedience orientation.

Hint 22

a. refers to the Naive Hedonism stage.

b. operates on the premise that rewards guide morals.

c. a and b.

d. is the highest level of morality. However, some people
never reach this level.

Front 23

The zone of proximal development:

Back 23

a. was pioneered by Lev Vygotsky.

The zone of proximal development describes the difference
between a child’s performance without a teacher
versus that which he or she is capable of with an instructor.
In choice “c” the concept of organ inferiority is mentioned.
This term is primarily associated with the work of Alfred Adler,
who created individual psychology.

Hint 23

a. was pioneered by Lev Vygotsky.

b. was pioneered by Piaget and Kohlberg.

c. emphasized organ inferiority.

d. a, b, and c.

Front 24

Freud and Erikson:

Back 24

b. could be classified as maturationists.

In the behavioral sciences, the concept of the maturation hypothesis
(also known as the maturation theory) suggests that
behavior is guided exclusively via hereditary factors, but that certain
behaviors will not manifest themselves until the necessary
stimuli are present in the environment. In addition, the theory
suggests that the individual’s neural development must be at a
certain level of maturity for the behavior to unfold. A counselor
who believes in this concept strives to unleash inborn abilities,
instincts, and drives. The client’s childhood and the past are seen
as important therapeutic topics.

Hint 24

a. could be classified as behaviorists.

b. could be classified as maturationists.

c. agreed that developmental stages are psychosexual.

d. were prime movers in the biofeedback movement.

Front 25

John Bowlby’s name is most closely associated with:

Back 25

c. bonding and attachment.

Arnold Gesell was a pioneer in terms of using a one-way
mirror for observing children. Maturationists such as Gesell
feel that development is primarily determined via
genetics/heredity. Hence, a child must be ready before
he or she can accept a certain level of education (e.g.,
kindergarten). Bowlby’s name starts with a “B,” as does the
word bonding. Aren’t memory devices wonderful? John Bowlby
saw bonding and attachment as having survival value, or what is
often called adaptive significance. Bowlby insisted that in order
to lead a normal social life the child must bond with an adult
before the age of 3. If the bond is severed at an early age, it is
known as “object loss,” and this is said to be the breeding ground
for abnormal behavior, or what is often called psychopathology.
Mahler calls the child’s absolute dependence on the female
caretaker “symbiosis.” Difficulties in the symbiotic relationship
can result in adult psychosis.

Hint 25

a. the work of psychologist and pediatrician, Arnold Gesell,
a maturationist.

b. developmental stage theories.

c. bonding and attachment.

d. the unconscious mind.

Front 26

In which Eriksonian stage does the midlife crisis occur?

Back 26

a. generativity versus stagnation

Most theorists believe that the midlife crisis occurs between
ages 35 and 45 for men and about five years earlier for women,
when the individual realizes his or her life is half over. Persons
often need to face the fact that they have not achieved their
goals or aspirations. Incidentally, the word generativity refers to
the ability to be productive and happy by looking outside one’s
self and being concerned with other people. Some exams may
refer to this stage as “generativity versus self-absorption.” Daniel
Levinson, who wrote Seasons of a Man’s Life and Seasons
of a Woman’s Life, viewed the midlife crisis as somewhat positive,
pointing out that individuals who do not face it may indeed
stagnate or become stale during their fifties. In other words,
avoiding or bypassing the crisis can lead to lack of vitality in later
years.

Hint 26

a. generativity versus stagnation

b. integrity versus despair

c. a and b

d. Erikson’s stages do not address midlife issues

Front 27

The researcher who is well known for his work with maternal
deprivation and isolation in rhesus monkeys is:

Back 27

a. Harry Harlow.

Harlow’s work is now well-known in the social sciences. Harlow
believed that attachment was an innate tendency and not
one which is learned. Monkeys placed in isolation developed
autistic abnormal behavior. When these monkeys were placed
in cages with normally reared monkeys some remission of the
dysfunctional behavior was noted. Evidence that this is true in
man comes from the work of René Spitz, who noted that children
reared in impersonal institutions (and hence experienced
maternal deprivation between the sixth and eighth month of
life) cried more, experienced difficulty sleeping, and had more
health-related difficulties. Spitz called this “anaclitic depression.”
These infants would ultimately experience great difficulty
forming close relationships.

Hint 27

a. Harry Harlow.

b. John Bowlby.

c. Lawrence Kohlberg.

d. all of the above.

Front 28

The statement: “Males are better than females when performing
mathematical calculations” is:

Back 28

d. true according to research by Maccoby and Jacklin.

Maccoby and Jacklin reviewed the literature and found very few
differences that could be attributed to genetics and biological
factors. The superiority of males in the area of mathematics,
however, was not significant until high school or perhaps college.
Girls who excelled in science and math often identified
with their fathers and were encouraged to value initiative and
were given independence. Thus, the major impetus for sex-role
differences may come from child-rearing patterns rather than
bodily chemistry.

Hint 28

a. false.

b. true due to a genetic fl aw commonly found in women.

c. true only in middle-aged men.

d. true according to research by

Front 29

The Eriksonian stage that focuses heavily on sharing your life
with another person is:

Back 29

c. intimacy versus isolation—ages 23 to 34.

If you didn’t know the answer, did you guess? Yes, of course I’m
being serious. Remember no penalty is assessed for guessing on
the NCE/CPCE. An educated guess based on the fact that intimacy
implies sharing one’s life would have landed you a correct
answer here. Counselors need to be aware that an individual
who fails to do well in this stage may conclude that he or she can
depend on no one but the self.

Hint 29

a. actually the major theme in all of Erikson’s eight stages.

b. generativity versus stagnation—ages 35 to 60.

c. intimacy versus isolation—ages 23 to 34.

d. a critical factor Erikson fails to mention.

Front 30

We often refer to individuals as conformists. Which of these individuals would most likely conform to his or her peers?

Back 30

d. a 13-year-old male middle school student.

Conformity seems to peak in the early teens.

Hint 30

a. a 19-year-old male college student.

b. 23-year-old male drummer in a rock band.

c. a 57-year old female stockbroker.

d. a 13-year-old male middle school student.

Front 31

In Harry Harlow’s experiments with baby monkeys:

Back 31

b. the baby monkey was more likely to cling to a terry cloth
mother surrogate than a wire surrogate mother.

Infant monkeys preferred the terry cloth mothers to wire mothers even though the wire mothers were equipped to dispense milk. Harlow concluded “contact comfort” is important in the development of the infant’s attachment to his or her mother. A
165-day experiment revealed that the monkeys were spending
an average of 1ó hours per day with the wire mother and 16
hours with the terry cloth mother. Bowlby, mentioned previously,
would say that in humans the parents act as a “releaser stimulus” to elicit relief from hunger and tension through holding.

Hint 31

a. a wire mother was favored by most young monkeys over a
terry cloth version.

b. the baby monkey was more likely to cling to a terry cloth
mother surrogate than a wire surrogate mother.

c. female monkeys had a tendency to drink large quantities
of alcohol.

d. male monkeys had a tendency to drink large quantities of
alcohol.

Front 32

Freud postulated psychosexual stages:

Back 32

b. oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.

Choice “a” depicts Freud’s structural theory of the mind as being composed of the id, the ego, and the superego. In choice
“c” the word eros refers to the Freudian concept of the life instinct while thanatos refers to the self-destructive death instinct.
Analysis is just brimming with verbiage borrowed from Greek
mythology. The term regression is used to describe clients who
return to an earlier stage of development. In choice “d” you
should familiarize yourself with the terms manifest and latent,
which in psychoanalysis refer to the nature of a dream. Manifest
content describes the dream material as it is presented to the
dreamer. Latent content (which is seen as far more important by
the Freudians) refers to the hidden meaning of the dream.

Hint 32

a. id, ego, and superego.

b. oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.

c. eros, thanatos, regression, and superego.

d. manifest, latent, oral, and phallic.

Front 33

In adolescence:

Back 33

d. males commit suicide more often than females, but females
attempt suicide more often.

Males commit suicide more often than females. This answer
would apply not just to adolescence but to nearly all
age brackets. One theory is that males are more successful in
killing themselves because they use firearms whereas females
rely on less lethal methods. Choice “b” is false inasmuch as suicide
is generally the 11th or 12th leading cause of death in this
country as well as the second or third leading killer of teens each
year. And as far as choice “c” is concerned, a counselor should always
take it seriously when a client of any age threatens suicide.
The truth is that the vast majority of those who have killed themselves
have communicated the intent to do so in some manner.

So take clients’ suicide threats seriously. Have I made myself
clear?

Hint 33

a. females commit suicide more than males.

b. suicide is a concern but statistically very rare.

c. the teens who talk about suicide are not serious.

d. males commit suicide more often than females, but females
attempt suicide more often.

Front 34

In the general population:

Back 34

c. suicide rates tend to increase with age.

Choice “b” is way off the mark. Suicidal clients often make attempts after the depression begins to lift! Official statistics indicate about 30,000 suicides each year in the United States. Suicidologists (and yes there is such a word!) believe that the actual number may be closer to 75,000 due to complications in accurately coding the cases. Choice “a” reflects the approximate suicide rate in black females. The overall suicide rate in the United States in any given year is about 11/100,000. Interestingly enough, personality measures such as the MMPI-2 and the Rorschach are not good predictors of suicide or for that matter of suicide attempts. In essence, test profiles of suicidal individuals generally are not distinguishable from those of persons who are not suicidal.

Hint 34

a. the suicide rate is 2/100,000.
b. suicide occurs at the beginning of a depressive episode,
but rarely after the depression lifts.
c. suicide rates tend to increase with age.
d. b and c.

Front 35

The fear of death:

Back 35

a. is greatest during middle age.

In Erikson’s stages the individual would accept the finality of life
better during the final state than in the middle age years.

Hint 35

a. is greatest during middle age.

b. is an almost exclusively male phenomenon.

c. is the number one psychiatric problem in the geriatric
years.

d. surprisingly enough occurs in the teen years.

Front 36

In Freudian theory, attachment is a major factor:

Back 36

c. which evolves primarily during the oral age.

This would make sense from a logical standpoint, because the
oral stage is the first Freudian psychosexual stage and occurs
while the child is still an infant (i.e., the stage goes from birth to
one year). As mentioned earlier, attachments in human as well
as animal studies indicate that the bonding process takes place
early in life.

Hint 36

a. in the preconscious mind.

b. in the mind of the child in latency.

c. which evolves primarily during the oral age.

d. a and b.

Front 37

When comparing girls to boys, it could be noted that:

Back 37

d. all of the above.

Boys on the other hand are more physically active and aggressive,
probably due to androgen hormones. Boys also seem to
possess better visual–perceptual skills.

Hint 37

a. girls grow up to smile more.

b. girls are using more feeling words by age 2.

c. girls are better able to read people without verbal cues at
any age.

d. all of the above.

Front 38

The Freudian developmental stage which “least” emphasizes sexuality is:

Back 38

d. latency.

Here’s an easy one. Remember how I mentioned in question 32
that the word latent refers to the hidden meaning of the dream?
Well in the developmental stages the sexual drive seems hidden
(or at least not very prominent) during latency. Sexual interests
are replaced by social interests like sports, learning, and hobbies.
Now this is very important: Latency is the only Freudian
developmental stage which is not primarily psychosexual in nature.
It occurs roughly between ages 6 and 12.

Hint 38

a. oral.

b. anal.

c. phallic.

d. latency.

Front 39

In terms of parenting young children:

Back 39

a. boys are punished more than girls.

Hint: Before you sit for the NCE/CPCE or written or oral boards,
take a moment to review the major theories and research related
to child rearing. Stanley Coopersmith, for example, found that
child-rearing methods seem to have a tremendous impact on
self-esteem. A study he conducted indicated that, surprisingly
enough, children with high self-esteem were punished just as
often as kids with low self-esteem. The children with high selfesteem,
however, were provided with a clear understanding of
what was morally right and wrong. This was not usually the case
in children with low self-esteem. The children with high self-esteem
actually had more rules than the kids with low self-esteem.
When the child with high self-esteem was punished the emphasis
was on the behavior being bad and not the child. Parents
of children with high self-esteem were more democratic in the
sense that they would listen to the child’s arguments and then
explain the purpose of the rules. The Coopersmith study utilized
middle-class boys, ages 10 to 12. Choice “d” stands incorrect
since girls routinely display more caregiver behavior.

Hint 39

a. boys are punished more than girls.

b. girls are punished more than boys.

c. boys and girls are treated in a similar fashion.

d. boys show more caregiver behavior.

Front 40

When developmental theorists speak of nature or nurture they
really mean:

Back 40

a. how much heredity or environment interact to influence
development.

In this question the word nature refers to heredity and genetic
makeup, while nurture refers to the environment. The age-old
argument is whether heredity or environment has the greatest
impact on the person’s development. Today theorists shy away from an extremist position and admit that both factors play a major role. Just for the record, choice “d” mentioned B. F. Skinner,
who was the prime mover in the behavioristic psychology movement.
Behaviorists, like Skinner, tend to emphasize the power of
environment.

Hint 40

a. how much heredity or environment interact to influence
development.

b. the focus is skewed in favor of biological attributes.

c. a and b.

d. a theory proposed by Skinner’s colleagues.

Front 41

Stage theorists assume:

Back 41

a. qualitative changes between stages occur.

Choice “b” is incorrect inasmuch as differences can often be
measured. Just ask any behaviorist! Choice “c” makes no sense
because analysts (who are not considered humanistic) such as
Freud and Erikson have supported the stage theory viewpoint.

Hint 41

a. qualitative changes between stages occur.

b. differences surely exist but usually can’t be measured.

c. that humanistic psychology is the only model which truly
supports the stage viewpoint.

d. b and c.

Front 42

Development:

Back 42

c. is a continuous process which begins at conception.

Developmental psychologists are fond of looking at prenatal influences (i.e., smoking or alcohol consumption) that affect the
fetus before birth.

Hint 42

a. begins at birth.

b. begins during the first trimester of pregnancy.

c. is a continuous process which begins at conception.

d. a and c.

Front 43

Development is cephalocaudal, which means:

Back 43

b. head to foot.

The head of the fetus develops earlier than the legs. Cephalocaudal simply refers to bodily proportions between the head and tail.

Hint 43

a. foot to head.

b. head to foot.

c. limbs receive the highest level of nourishment.

d. b and c.

Front 44

Heredity:

Back 44

d. all of the above.

Here is a vest pocket definition of heredity. You should also be
familiar with the term heritability, which is the portion of a trait
that can be explained via genetic factors.

Hint 44

a. assumes the normal person has 23 pairs of chromosomes.
b. assumes that heredity characteristics are transmitted by
chromosomes.
c. assumes genes composed of DNA hold a genetic code.

Front 45

Piaget’s final stage is known as the formal operational stage. In this stage:

Back 45

c. a and b.

Again, unfortunately, Piaget felt a large number of individuals
never really reach this stage; hence, the difficulty of subjects like
algebra, physics, and geometry. Another characteristic of the
formal operations stage is that the child can think in terms of
multiple hypotheses. If you ask a child to answer a question such
as, “Why did someone shoot the president?,” a child who has
mastered formal operations (approximately age 11 and beyond)
will give several hypotheses while a child in the previous stages
would most likely be satisfied with one explanation. For exam
purposes, remember that abstract concepts of time (e.g., What
was life like 500 years ago?) or distance (e.g., How far is 600
miles?) can only be comprehended via abstract thinking, which
occurs in this stage. Answer “d” is incorrect inasmuch as Piaget
felt that when the child finally reached the final stage he or she
would be ready for adulthood and would not experience childlike
feelings of helplessness,

Hint 45

a. abstract thinking emerges.

b. problems can be solved using deduction.

c. a and b.

d. the child has mastered abstract thinking but still feels
helpless.

Front 46

Kohlberg lists _______ stages of moral development which fall
into _______ levels.

Back 46

a. 6, 3

Here is a vest-pocket review of the stages and levels. Preconventional
Level with Stage 1, Punishment/Obedience Orientation, and Stage 2, Naive Hedonism (also called instrumental or egotistic) Orientation. The entire first level is sometimes called the “premoral level.” Conventional Level with Stage 3, Good Boy/Good Girl Orientation, and Stage 4, Authority, Law, and Order Orientation. This entire level is often known as “morality of conventional rules and conformity.” Postconventional Level with Stage 5, Democratically Accepted Law or “Social Contract”
and Stage 6, Principles of Self-Conscience and Universal Ethics.
The last level is sometimes termed the “morality of self-accepted
principles level.”

Hint 46

a. 6, 3

b. 6, 6

c. 3, 6

d. 3, 3

Front 47

A person who lives by his or her individual conscience and universal
ethical principles:

Back 47

d. a and c.

Still confused? Review answer given in question 46.

Hint 47

a. has, according to Kohlberg, reached the highest stage of
moral development.

b. is in the preconventional level.

c. is in the postconventional level of self-accepted moral
principles.

d. a and c.

Front 48

Freud’s Oedipus Complex:

Back 48

c. a and b.

The Oedipus complex is the most controversial part of Freud’s
theory and choices “a” and “b” roughly describe it. The Oedipus
complex, the boy’s secret wish to marry his mother, paired with
rage toward his father, is said to occur between ages 3 and 5.
Looking for a good memory device? Well here it is. The Oedipus
complex occurs during the phallic stage and both words conveniently
contain the letter “p.” Some tests may actually refer to
this stage as the phallic–oedipal stage. Freud chose the name
based on the Greek myth in which Oedipus, the mythical king of
Thebes, unknowingly killed his father and married his mother.

Hint 48

a. is the stage in which fantasies of sexual relations with the
opposite-sex parent occurs.

b. occurs during the phallic stage.

c. a and b.

d. is a concept Freud ultimately eliminated from his theory.

Front 49

In girls the Oedipus complex may be referred to as:

Back 49

d. the Electra complex.

In the Oedipus complex in boys and the Electra complex in girls
(also grounded in Greek myth), the female child fantasizes about
sexual relations with the parent of the opposite sex. This creates
tension since this is generally not possible. Hence the child is
said to have a fantasy in which he or she wishes to kill the parent
of the opposite sex. Freud went on to hypothesize that eventually
the child identifies with the parent of the same sex. This leads
to internalization of parental values, and thus the conscience or
superego is born. As for choices “a,” “b,” and “c,” they are all
behavioral terms and hence incorrect. The term covert in choice
“b” refers to any psychological process which cannot be directly
observed, while in choice “c” I introduce you to “in vivo” which
means the client is exposed to an actual situation which might
prove frightful or difficult. The word desensitization refers to
behavior therapy techniques that help to ameliorate anxiety reactions.

Hint 49

a. systematic desensitization.

b. covert desensitization.

c. in vivo desensitization.

d. the Electra complex.

Front 50

The correct order of the Freudian psychosexual stages is:

Back 50

a. oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.

Freud is the father of psychoanalysis, which is the most comprehensive theory of personality and therapy ever devised.

Hint 50

a. oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.

b. oral, anal, genital, phallic, and latency.

c. oral, phallic, latency, genital, and anal.

d. phallic, genital, latency, oral, and anal.