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  • Front
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The Life of a Cell



Lecture 2

Cell Diversity

Cells differ in shape, morphology (related structures), size, and function

Microscope Types

Light




Electron

Size Limitations

Surface to volume ratios allow exchange of CO2, O2, waste, and nutrients with environment.




Capacity of membrane enables/limits transport mechanisms

Eukaryotic cell structure

Plasma Membrane

Encloses contents of cell, it has selective permeability, and a lipid bilayer

Lipid Bilayer

Has a hydrophilic heads (polar) and hydrophobic tails (non polar) only accepts certain things inside

Membrane Proteins

Embedded either within the lipid bilayers or on the peripherals of the membrane. Proteins can be modified by sugars or carbohydrates.

Embedded either within the lipid bilayers or on the peripherals of the membrane. Proteins can be modified by sugars or carbohydrates.

Membrane transport mechanisms:






1) Simple Diffusion


2) Facilitated Diffusion


3) Active Transport

Simple Diffusion

Slow and uncommon way of cells moving from high to low pressure

Facilitated Diffusion

Cations move from outside to inside of cell or vice versa (Na^+, Ca^2+, K^+ are "Channel Proteins")

Cations move from outside to inside of cell or vice versa (Na^+, Ca^2+, K^+ are "Channel Proteins")

Active Transport

Requires energy from ATP to move from low to high pressure 

Requires energy from ATP to move from low to high pressure

Membrane Transport and Homeostasis

-Endocytosis moved materials into a cell, exocytosis moves materials out of a cell.
-Osmosis is diffusion from high to low pressure

-Endocytosis moved materials into a cell, exocytosis moves materials out of a cell.


-Osmosis is diffusion from high to low pressure



Functions of the Nucleus

-Store and replicate DNA in long strands of chromatin


-Coordinate cell activity (growth, protein synthesis, reproduction)




Both nucleus and nucleolus have bilaminar envelopes

Functions of Nucleolus (located inside of the nucleus)

Synthesizes RNA




Both nucleus and nucleolus have bilaminar envelopes

Nuclear Pores

regulate movement of material into or out of the nucleus


Cytoskeleton of a cell includes:

Mictrotubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments

Mictrotubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments

Microtubules

Spiraling proteins of α & β tubulins move cilia and flagella to move materials around the cell (very reactive)

Microfilaments

Double twisted proteins of actin shape the cell and regulate movement (pretty stable)

Intermediate Filaments

provide mechanical support

Functions of Mitochondrion

-Generate power in the form of ATP from O2 and nutrients


-Bilaminar layer forms folds on the inside of the cell (cristae) where energy is formed


-Found in cytoplasm

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

-Manufactures, transports, and processes chemicals for use in & out of cell


-Serves as a pipeline from the nucleus to the cytoplasm


-Rough ER contains ribosomes (sites of protein synthesis)

Ribosome

-Organelles made of 60% RNA (or 4 strands in eukaryotic cells), 40% protein (site of protein synthesis)


-Ribosomes are either unbound (in cytoplasm) or bound (to the ER)

Golgi Complex / Apparatus

-Packages, distributes and ships organelles for the cell's chemical products


-Modifies proteins and fats for transport or export


-Cisternae (flattened sacs) bud off vesicles that travel throughout the cell distributing modified proteins/fats

Lysosomes (membrane bound, in cytoplasm)

-Main function is to remove waste from the cell


-Lyctic enzymes break down proteins and fats and digest molecules by fusing with endosomes


-This creates waste or material for new growth

Types of Lyctic Enzymes

Lipases - digest lipids


Carbohydrases – digest carbohydrates (sugars) Proteases – digest proteins


Nucleases – digest nucleic acids


Phosphatases – digest phosphoric acid monoesters

Spacial Location of Cell Structures / Organelles

-Nucleus and Nucleolus are covered in nuclear envelope 
-Mitochondria near nucleus
-Cytoplasm is spread all throughout cell

-Nucleus and Nucleolus are covered in nuclear envelope


-Mitochondria near nucleus


-Cytoplasm is spread all throughout cell

Immune System



Lecture 6

Role of Immune System

Protect against disease and other foreign invaders (microbes) by distinguishing viruses, bacteria, and parasites from body's own healthy tissues

Major Components of Immune System

Lymphatic system (fights infectious disease) and includes bone marrow, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, lymphocytes and leucocytes

Components of Lymphatic System

-Lymph nodes produce and store cells that fight infection and disease


-Spleen stores white blood cells that fight infection or disease, controls blood volume and blood cells


-Bone marrow is yellow tissue in the center of bones (femur, pelvis) produces white bloodcells -Thymus where T-cells mature, can trigger/maintain growth of antibodies


-Lymphocytes small white blood cells (B-cells and T-cells)


-Leukocytes white blood cells identify and eliminate pathogens

Viral infective agents

Nucleic acid core with a protein membrane (capsid) and may have an envelope. They are nonliving and cannot replicate independently

Bacterial infective agents

Reproduce on their own, infect host cells. Good and bad bacteria will react to antibiotics and probiotics  

Reproduce on their own, infect host cells. Good and bad bacteria will react to antibiotics and probiotics

First Lines of Immune Defense

-Physical: skin and epithelial linings to protect espiratory, digestive, and urinary systems


-Chemical: lysozyme in sweat, tears, saliva are body secretions that prevent growth of bacteria

Second Lines of Immune Defense (Cellular and Chemical)

1) Inflammatory response


2) Pyrogens


3) Interferons


4) Complement Proteins

Inflammatory Response

Increased blood flow, release of chemical attractants, and the flow of plasma into the wound constitute the inflammatory response

Macrophages (part of inflammatory response)

-Main function: destroy foreign infectious cells


-Found beneath epithelia that phagocytize infective agents, preventing their spread. Increased blood flow causes increased temperature, and increases rate of destruction of infectious agents

Histamine (part of inflammatory response)

Chemical released by damaged tissue, stimulates arterioles in the infected tissue to dilate causing increased blood flow

Plasma (part of inflammatory response)

Plasma flows into the permeable capillaries of the wound, causing swelling/edema

Pyrogens



Released by macrophages which raise body temp and lower iron. This decreases bacterial replication

Interferons

Released by virus infected cells and travel to other infected cells to inhibit their replication

Released by virus infected cells and travel to other infected cells to inhibit their replication

Complement Proteins

Contained in blood, and activates a cellular response to the virus

Third Line of Immune Defense: Lymphocytic Response

Lymphocytes reside in lymph nodes and tissues, target foreign cells

Antigens (Part of Lymphocytic Response)

Large protein/polysaccharide molecules that trigger an immune response - it is any substance that causes an immune system to produce antibodies against it

Antibodies

Proteins produced by B-cells (mature in bone marrow), and T-cells (mature in thymus) that bind to antigens and respond in 4 different ways

Antibody Response

Antibody Response

-Precipitation (hardening), Agglutination (clumping) and Neutralization all phagocytize and form microphage cell


-Complement Activation (attacks membrane) either hurts, attracts white blood cells, or phagocytizes

B-Cells

-Produce antibodies that destroy antigens (humoral immunity)


-The first time they are exposed to antigens they react slowly, but the second time is faster and with larger magnitude

T-Cells



Attack foreign cells directly (cellular immunity)




4 Types


-Cytotoxic T cells


-Memory T cells


-Helper T cells


-Suppressor T cells

Immunity (Active vs. Passive)

-Vaccines create active immunity so the body responds faster next time


-Passive immunity is the injection of antibodies after the body is infected for the first time, or can be passed from mother to child

Diseases of the Immune System

-Allergies: overreaction to environmentalsubstances


-Autoimmune diseases result from an immune attack on the body’s own cells

Autoimmune Diseases

-Addison's disease is often caused by autoimmune destructionof the adrenal cortex


-Crohn's disease is a form of inflammatory bowel diseasecharacterized by chronic inflammation of the intestinal tract


-Diabetes mellitus is a deficiency orabsence of insulin production (Type I), often the consequential of an autoimmune attack on the insulin-producing beta cells in the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas


-Lupus erythematosus is a chronic (long-lasting) autoimmunedisease wherein the immune system, for unknown reasons, becomes hyperactive and attacks normal tissue


-Multiple sclerosis is a disorder of the central nervous system(brain and spinal cord) characterized by decreased nerve function due to myelin loss and secondary axonal damage

Infectious Disease

Lecture 7

Pathogens

-Microbes (viruses and bacteria) that cause disease


-Infectious microbes (grow in body tissues)


-Contagious microbes (easily transmitted)

Viral Life Cycle

-Attaches to target cell


-Enters cell through phagocytosis


-Virus's genetic information is replicated in the nucleus


-Assembles genetic information in capsids and forms new viral particles


-Released from host cell

Bacterial Phenotypes

Rod, sphere, or spiral infect host by replicating

Rod, sphere, or spiral infect host by replicating

Germ Theory by Louis Pasteur

Theory that if you have two vials of liquid and one is left open, it will collect germs and become cloudy

Fungi, Protozoa, and Helminths

-Fungi include yeasts, molds, mushrooms


-Protozoa are single celled eukaryotic cells (many live in intestines)


-Helminths are parasitic worms

Course of Human Disease

-Infection: state or process of being infected by a microorganism


-Disease: when homeostasis is disrupted (virulence is the different strengths of pathogens to cause disease)



Pathogenicity

Microorganism or virus’s ability to enter the host’s tissues and cause achange resulting in poor or compromised health

Disease Characteristics

-Signs are detectable and measurable changes in body function (fever, swollen lymph nodes, bloodchemistry).


-Symptoms are un-measurable changes in the body (headache, tiredness, malaise).


-Syndrome is a specific group of signs and symptoms.

Disease Progression

1. Incubation period (Day 0)


2. Prodromal phase (Day 3)


3. Acme period (acute) (Day 5: Sudden appearance of symptoms)


4. Period of decline (Day 8-10)


5. Period of convalescence (Day 10-14)

Disease Transmission

-Endemic diseases small region to small # of individuals


-Epidemic diseases larger # of individuals in a large population (ex: flu in metropolitan area)–


-Outbreak larger # of individuals within a small population. (ex: flu in small rural town)


-Pandemic worldwide (H1N1)

Direct Transmission

– Person-to-person contact


– Mother-to-child contact


– Animal-to-person contact (zoonotic)


– Airborne particles and respiratory droplets

Indirect Transmission

– Touching infected surfaces (ex: public places)


– Inhaling pathogens carried in aerosols


– Bites by insects or arthropods (ex: mosquitoes, flies, ticks)


– Consuming contaminated food and water

Zoonotic Diseases

-Lyme's Disease (ticks)


-West Nile/Dengue Fever/Malaria (mosquito)


-Salmonella, e. Coli (chicken, cattle, duck, turtle)

Viral Zoonoses

Rabies, avian influenza, hemorrhagic fever, Ebola and Rift Valley fever

Causes for Emerging Infectious Diseases

-Expanding world population


-Worldwide animal transport


-Mobility / increased international travel


-Changes in food handling / processing

Bioterrorism

Deliberately contaminating food/water supply or inflicting disease on a large population for wartime gain