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190 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Which plane divides the body into top and bottom? Right and left? Front and back?
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- Transverse/horizontal/axial
- Sagittal (median/mid-sagittal) - Frontal/coronal |
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If you have torn both your right and left anterior cruciate ligaments, it is a _______ injury.
a) unilateral b. bilateral |
b. bilateral
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An "extra bone besides the navicular bone is called...
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An accessory bone
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What is a sesamoid bone? Function?
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Bone found witin a tendon
Functions in protection and mechanical advantage |
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Bone formed directly from embryonic connective tissue is known as ______.
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Mesenchyme
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Is long bone growth endochondral or intramembranous ossification?
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Endochondral
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Functions of spongy bone
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- Lightens bone
- Resists forces from many angles - 3-D branching lattice, aligned with the direction of mechanical stress - High surface area - High metabolic activity (8x that of cortical bone) - creates cavities to contain bone marrow - Ends of long bones - Flat bones |
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Location of Hematopoietic Tissue aka Red Marrow
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- Red marrow cavities of adults
- Trabecular cavities of the heads of the femur and humerus - Trabecular cavities of flat bones - Red marrow of newborn infants - Medullary cavities and all spaces in spongy bone |
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What are the typical symptoms of a fractured bone? What produces the painful symptoms?
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- Pain, nausea, swelling, deformation, discoloration
- Nerve endings in the periosteum |
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Vessel and Nerves Innervation
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Periosteum
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(2 layers)
- Outer fibrous layer - Inner osteogenic layer - Osteoblasts (bone-forming cells) - Osteoclasts (bone-destroying cells) - Osteogenic cells (stem cells) - Nerve fibers, nutrient blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels enter the bone via nutrient foramina - Secured to underlying bone by Sharpey's fibers |
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Endosteum
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- Delicate membrane on internal surfaces of bone
- Also contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts |
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Which of the following are examples of a cartilaginous joint?
a. The epiphyseal plate in a long bone b. Intervertebral discs in the vertebral column c. The sutures between the bones of the skull d. All of the above e. Only A and B |
e. Only A and B
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What type of cartilage forms cartilaginous joints?
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Hyaline Cartilage
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What are the general features of a synovial joint?
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Which of the following accurately describes cardiac muscle?
a. multiple nuclei & striated b. striated, branching fibers with intercalated discs c. found in walls of blood vessels d. all of the above e. B and C only |
b. striated, branching fibers with intercalated discs
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What are varicose veins?
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How is blood propelled?
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What are the functions of capillaries?
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- Gas exchange
- Lungs - Tissue (brain, heart, skeletal muscle, etc..) - Deliver nutrients - Remove waste - Uptake from small intestine - Filtration at kidney |
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What type of nerve fiber is typically found in the ventral root of the spinal cord?
a. Motor b. Sensory c. Both motor and sensory d. None of the above |
a. Motor
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How are motor nerves related to muscle?
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Then send a message from the brain signaling the muscle to contract
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If there is damage to a motor nerve, what affect will it have on the muscle is serves?
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The muscle will not receive the signal to contact; person is weaker doing movements involving that muscle
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What exactly is a nerve?
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What are the 4 primary tissue types?
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Nervous
Epithelial Connective Muscle |
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What is the general pattern of tissue arrangement of a tube shaped organ?
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epithelium-->connective-->muscle-->connective
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What structural characteristic of epithelia allow for unique functions?
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- Cellularity: just cells, no extracellular stuff
- Specialized contacts: tight junctions, desmosomes - Polarity: apical and basal - Supported by connective tissue - Avascular, but innervated - Regeneration via cell division |
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Maintaining the Integrity of the Epithelium
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Intercellular connections
- Tight junctions: prevent molecules from passing through intracellular space - Desmosomes: bind cells and forms internal scaffolding, providing structural integrity |
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Epithelia is avascular
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- No space for blood vessels
- blood vessels are loacted in the underlying connective tissue |
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Polarity of epithelia
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- Two sides with different properties
- Apical (or lumenal) side faces out (free) - Basal side supported by (anchored to) connective tissue via basement membrane |
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Simple squamous epithelium
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- thin, permeable
- located where rapid diffusion is required where can we find it? - kidney (glomeruli), lung (alveoli), capillaries - endothelium: inside of hollow tubes to reduce friction - mesothelium: lining the ventral body cavity and its organs |
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This type of epithelial tissue is rare in the human body, but can be found in the male urethra, and functions in protection and secretion:
a) simple cuboidal epithelium b) simple columnar epithelium c) stratified columnar epithelium d) stratified squamous epithelium e) pseudostratified columnar epithelium |
c) stratified columnar epitheluim
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Stratified Squamous Epitheluim
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- regeneration from below
- major role is protection located: - mouth - esophagus - vagina |
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Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
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- varies in heights
- single layer - nuclei at different heights - secretes mucus Function: - nasal cavity - trachea - bronchi |
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Endocrine vs exocrine secretion
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exocrine: releases into a lumen; can be single cells or a multicellular gland
endocrine: ductless, secretes into blood |
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4 classes of connective tissue
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PROPER
- Loose - Dense BONE - compact - spongy CARTILAGE - hyaline - elastic - fibrocartilage BLOOD |
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Major Functions of Connective Tissue
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- connects/binds tissue together
- support - protection - defense - repair - insulation - cushions - storage - transportation |
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Origin of connective tissue
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Mesenchyme
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Ligaments are composed of very strong connective tissue, which consists of densely packed, parallel connective tissue fibers. When a ligament tears, it is difficult to repair both physiologically and surgically. WHY?
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this type of tissue has relatively FEW CELLS and vascular supply is POOR
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Characteristics of Connective Tissue
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- mesenchyme as their common tissue of origin
- varying degrees of vascularity why is this relevant? - cells separated by nonliving extracellular matrix (ground substance and fibers) |
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How do the basic components make diverse connective tissue? What if the tissues has more elastin than collagen? What if the tissue has more collagen than elastin? What if more gel component relative to fibrous proteins?
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- To produce connective tissue with different properties, the basic components are present in different amounts
- Change the type of collagen present - Type I prevalent in tendons, ligaments and bones - Type II prevalent in cartilage - Type III in walls of hollow structures like blood vessels, intestine, uterus: reticular fibers....blend into type Iv - Type IV in basement membrane of epithelia (basal lamina + reticular lamina) |
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Which type of dense connective tissue type often underlies transitional epithelia?
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elastic
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What are the two layers of the dura mater?
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periosteal layer
meningeal layer |
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Falx cerebri
Function? Where is this structure found? |
- limit excessive movement of the brain
- longitudinal fissure between cerebral hemispheres - attaches to crista galli of ethmoid bone |
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Tentorium cerebelli
Where is this structure found? |
transverse fissure between cerebrum and cerebellum
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Arachnoid mater
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- delicate, transparent middle layer, loosely covers the brain
- the subarachnoid space lies between the arachnoid and pia mater |
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What is contained within the subarachnoid space?
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cerebral spinal fluid (CSF)
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Pia mater
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- thin, connective tissue membrane
- adheres closely to the surface of the brain - this layer dips into the sulci and fissures |
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In a typical, healthy individual, where do yo expect to find fluid filled space in the brain (as opposed to "potential spaces")?
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Ventricles and subarachnoid space
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Subdural space
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- very low volume
- considered a potential space - "cling" wrap and oil - similar to pleural linings and cavity (lung) |
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Where are the ventricles of the brain and how to they connect to each other?
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Cerebral Spinal Fluid: Function?
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- forms liquid cushion around the brain and spinal cord
- serves as a shock absorber - circulates nutrients filtered from the blood - you can follow a drop of CSF from production to venous blood |
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Where does CSF leave the ventricles to enter the subarachnoid space?
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- via 2 lateral and 1 median aperture, in the 4th ventricle
- absorbed into superior sagittal sinus via the arachnoid villa |
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What is the choroid plexus made up of? What volume of CSF is produced in a day?
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- Clusters of capillaries in the ventricles
- 400-500mL (~16 oz) |
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What structure is sensitive to pain, and can produce a headache?
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When CSF is somewhat depleted the brain sags slightly, pulling on the dura mater. This is thought to cause pain and headache (just one possible cause)
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Name the regions of the brain
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1. Cerebral hemispheres (or cerebrum)
2. Diencephalon: epithalamus, thalamus, and hypothalamus 3. Brain stem: midbrain, pons, and medulla 4. Cerebellum |
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The cerebrum
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Longitudinal fissure
- separates the cerebral hemispheres L vs. R Hemispheres - Contralateral body control/sense - Have very different functions |
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Gyri (gyrus)
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elevated ridges
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Sulci (sulcus)
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shallow grooves
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Lateral sulcus
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separates frontal/parietal lobe from the temporal lobe
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Central sulcus
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separates frontal lobe from the parietal lobe
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Precentral gyrus
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primary motor area
responsible for conscious (voluntary) movement of skeletal muscle |
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Postcentral gyrus
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primary sensory area
receives impulses from the body's sensory receptors |
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Gray matter
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- 2-4 mm thick
- Neuron cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers |
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White matter
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- allows for communication over longer distance
- myelinated fiber bundles |
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Lobes of Cerebrum
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- Frontal
- Parietal - Occipital - Temporal - Insular |
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Frontal
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- Associated with general intellect
- Voluntary motor control - Emotional behavior - Speech output |
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Parietal
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- Associated with general sensory input and its interpretation
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Occipital
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- Associated with visual input and its interpretation
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Temporal
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- Associated with auditory, olfactory and gustatory (taste) sensory input and interpretation
- Memory - Speech interpretation (perception and recognition) |
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Insula
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- Gustatory
- Olfactory - Integrates information from visceral receptors - Integrates autonomic information |
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Diencephalon
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- Located between the cerebral hemispheres, it forms the central core of the brain
- Composed of the thalamus, hypothalamus and epithalamus - Together these surround the third ventricle of the brain |
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Thalamus
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- Gateway to the cerebral cortex
- Sorting out and interpretation of AFFERENT impulses from all over the body - "relay station" |
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Interthalamic adhesion
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aka intermediate mass
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Hypothalamus
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- Homeostatic control center
Regulates - Emotion - Temperature - Appetite - Thirst - Sleep patterns - Endocrine system - releases dopamine, growth hormone-releasing hormone, gonadotropin-releasing hormone, etc...many of which stimulate pituitary |
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Mammillary Bodies
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- Part of limbic system (functional brain system)
- Collection of nuclei related to the - emotional response to odors - olfactory reflexes - memory - example: skunks smell bad |
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Epithalamus
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- Roof of the third ventricle: choroid plexus and pineal body
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Pineal body
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- Synthesizes a hormone involved in sleep-wake cycles: melatonin
- Related to onset of puberty |
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Measurement of TBI Severity
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- Length of consciousness (LOC)
- Length of post-traumatic amnesia (PTA) - Post-injury period of confusion with deficits in retaining new information and processing new memories; PTA ends when continuous (or near-continuous) memory resumes - Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) - Focal Neurologic Deficits |
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Cell-to-Cell Communication Occurs Via Synapses
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Functions of Microtubules
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Kinesin and movement along microtubules
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Vesicle Transport: 2 directions
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Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)
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Atrophy: Overall decreased brain mass
- Medial temporal lobes - Frontal lobes - Corpus callosum - Mammillary bodies - Thalamus - Hypothalamic floor - Hippocampus - Amygdala - Substantia nigra Increased: - Lateral ventricles - Third ventricles - Cavum septum pellucidum - Septal fenestrations |
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Cerebral metabolic and energetic effects of concussion
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- CT scan showing small hemorrhages and cerebral edema
- Despite the lack of clear anatomical or structural damage following mTBI there is clear evidence of brain activation alterations - Damage to axons TBI can result in structural damage to axons |
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Can diffuse axonal injury (DAI) be assessed, non-invasively?
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Detection of Acute Stroke
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Diffusion and white matter
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An isotropic diffusion
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What structures make up the brain stem?
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- midbrain
- pons - medulla oblongata |
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Midbrain
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- sits between the diencephalon and pons
- contains the cerebral aqueduct which connects 3rd and 4th ventricle Structures: - cerebral peduncles - corpora quadrigemina |
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Cerebral peduncles
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- ascending and descending neural tracts
- CONVEY IMPULSES: cerebral cortex to the spinal cord and reverse |
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Corpora Quadrigemina
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- four rounded eminences
- dorsal portion of the midbrain - posterior to the cerebral aqueduct |
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Superior colliculi
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- reflex center for movements of the eyeballs and head in response to visual and other stimuli
- coordinate movements for visual tracking |
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Inferior colliculi
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- reflex centers for movements of the head and trunk in response to auditory stimuli
- e.g. -- turning your head to the source of a sudden sound |
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Superior cerebellar peduncle
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- neural tracts which connect cerebellum to midbrain
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Pons
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Function:
- relay station: cerebrum to cerebellum (medulla to thalamus) - latin for "bridge" - + nuclei involved with many functions - sleep, breathing, hearing, equilibrium Structures: - middle cerebellar peduncles - white matter tracts connecting the pons with the cerebellum |
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Medulla Oblongata: located between what structures?
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spinal cord and the pons
the medulla is a continuation of the spinal cord which forms the inferior part of the brain stem |
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Structures of the Medulla Oblongata
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pyramids: ridges on the ventral surface containing tracts from the cerebral cortex
olives: nuclei which relay information from the spinal cord, cerebral cortex, diencephalon, and brain stem to the cerebellum inferior cerebellar peduncles: fiber tracts that connect medulla to cerebellum |
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Inferior cerebellar peduncles
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medulla oblongata: general functions
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autonomic reflex centers
cardiovascular center: - cardiac center adjusts force and rate of heart contraction - vasomotor center adjusts blood vessel diameter for blood pressure regulation respiratory centers: - generate respiratory rhythm - control rate and depth of breathing, with pontine centers additional centers regulate - vomit - hiccup - swallow - cough - sneeze |
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anatomy of the cerebellum: size? locations? lobes?
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- 11% of brain mass
- dorsal to the pons and medulla - two hemispheres connected by vermis - each hemisphere has 3 lobes (6 total) - folia--transversely oriented gyri - arbor vitae: distinctive treelike pattern of the cerebellar white matter |
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cerebellar lobes and peduncles
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Cerebellum: histology
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- cerebellar cortex: gray matter, superficial
- arbor vitae: white matter, tracts |
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Cerebellar Peduncles: what structures do the superior, middle and inferior cerebellar peduncles connect with the cerebellum?
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superior: midbrain, diencephalon, cerebrum
middle: pons inferior: medulla oblongata and spinal cord - fibers in the cerebellum are ipsilateral |
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Cerebellum: function
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subconscious, timing and pattern of muscle action "coordination"
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Vestibulocerebellum: flocculonodular lobe
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- receives input from the equilibrium apparatus and visual pathways
- control posture to maintain balance |
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Medial and intermediate parts of each hemisphere (vermis and hemispheres): function?
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coordinate movements of limbs
- contain overlapping sensory and motor maps - one in anterior and two in posterior lobe -->each map receives IPSILATERAL information: -- ascending sensory (proprioceptive) information from muscles (stretch and joints/ tendon) -- motor information from descending corticospinal axons; relayed from brainstem nuclei - congruent map function: position of muscles and the commands going to them (sensory and motor) - overlap of sensory and motor maps acts as a correction device --keep from over or undershooting...ie touch nose |
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Lateral parts of cerebellar hemispheres
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plan the sequence and timing of complex movements (allow one to do something after watching)
- receives information from both motor association (premotor, intent to perform action) and somatosensory association areas of cerebral cortex |
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Evidence for function of cerebellum? (Causes of damage)
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if damage to Vestibulocerebellum: equilibrium disturbed
- Implicated in severe motion sickness If damage to lateral cerebellum: lack of orderly progression between movements - unable to run/walk/talk correctly If damage to medial and intermediate areas: ataxia or lack of coordinated muscle control - slow tentative movements...overshoot - can't touch nose with eyes closed brain imaging during tasks suggests a role in non-motor activities like puzzles, word association |
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Protection of spinal cord
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- bone and meninges
- cushion of fat and a network of veins in the epidural space between the vertebrae and spinal dura mater - CSF in subarachnoid space |
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Spinal Meninges and CSF
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Meninges: protection, physical stability, and shock absorption
CSF: shock absorber, diffusion medium for dissolved gasses, nutrients, chemical messengers, waste products |
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epidural vs spinal tap (lumbar puncture)
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Filum Terminale
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fibrous extension from conus medullaris; anchors the spinal cord to the coccyx
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Dorsal Root
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Contains the axons of the sensory neurons and cell bodies in the dorsal root ganglion
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Ventral Root
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Contains the axons of both somatic and visceral motor neurons that control peripheral effectors
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Dorsal Ramus
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Supplies sensory information from and motor information to, a specific segment of the skin, muscles and back
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Ventral Ramus
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Supplies the ventrolateral body surface, structures in body wall and limbs
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Rami Communicantes
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Supplies autonomic ganglion with visceral motor fibers
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Brachial Plexus
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Lumbar Plexus
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How many pairs of spinal nerves?
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Dermatome
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Area of skin innervated by a single pair of spinal nerves
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Myotome
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A group of muscles primarily innervated by a single pair of spinal nerves
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PNS Plexus Formation
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example: radial nerve receives fibers from spinal nerves from five different cord levels
- in fact, all cord levels of the brachial plexus |
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Dermatomes and Herpes Zoster "Shingles"
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Gray Matter
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Mixture of neuron cell bodies, interneurons, and neuroglia
Anterior (ventral) horns - Contain cell bodies of the somatic motor neurons, whose axons are carried via the ventral roots - Represents the motor part of grey matter - Allows for voluntary control of skeletal muscle Posterior (dorsal) horns - Contain interneurons --Lie between sensory and motor neurons in neural pathways - Represents the sensory portion of gray matter Lateral horns - Contain autonomic motor neurons that innervate the visceral organs, axons are carried within the ventral roots |
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The gray matter of the spinal cord can be further divided into:
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Vertebral End Plate Fractures
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Cervical spondylosis
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Spondylolisthesis
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What type of joint are intervertebral discs?
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What is a herniated disc?
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Vertebral Fracture cause
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What do ligaments of the spine resist?
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a. disc herniation
b. fracture of the posterior portion of the vertebral arch c. rupture of the anterior longitudinal ligament d. all of the above |
a. disc herniation
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Which of the following tissues might be injured during a hyperextension (aka whiplash) injury?
a. anterior longitudinal ligament b. interspinous ligament c. ligamentum flavum d. posterior longitudinal ligament e. all of the above |
a. anterior longitudinal ligament
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Describe the atlanto-occipital joint? Type of joint? Movements expected?
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occipital condyles articulate with superior articular facet of the atlas
condyloid synovial joint flex/ext, side-bending, circumduction |
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Atlanto-axial joints, 3 joints: what are they? what type? primary movement?
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- 2 facet joints, plus dens with arch of atlas (anterior)
- 2 plane, 1 pivot - rotation - both occipital bone (skull) and atlas move as one on the axis |
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Which vertebrae offer movement?
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Which of the following is TRUE about uncovertebral joints?
a. they are also called facet joints b. they are found in cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae c. they are joints between a cervical vertebral body, and the transverse process of the vertebra below d. all of the above e. none of the above |
e. none of the above
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What are uncovertebral joints?
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Where is the uncinate process?
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What process is this?
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uncinate process
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Extrinsic and Intrinsic muscles of the back and trunk
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Superficial extrinsic muscles of the back and trunk (4)
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Intermediate extrinsic muscles of the back and trunk (3)
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Superficial intrinsic muscles of the back and trunk (2)
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What is the rule for which muscles of the back and trunk allow rotation?
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Intermediate intrinsic muscles of the back and trunk (3)
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erector spinae group:
- Iliocostalis - Longissimus - Spinalis Bilateral action? - extend vertebral column and head Unilateral action? - side bending |
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How are the muscles of the back organized?
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intrinsic and extrinsic
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What do intrinsic and extrinsic refer to in regard to the back muscles?
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- action
- upper limb/respiration vs movement of the spine |
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What is the crista ampullaris? Where can it be found and how is it stimulated?
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If you turn your head to the right, which way does fluid push your cupula?
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What is the vestibular-ocular reflex?
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damage to vestibular system disrupts VOR
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B. compression of the right oculomotor nerve
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What are the accessory structures of the eye?
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Lacrimal Apparatus
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Extrinsic Eye Muscles (6)
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b. superior rectus
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Damage to which cranial nerve is suspected?
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paralysis of left abducent
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oculomotor
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A. sclera, choroid, retina
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What are the three layers of the eye? What does the lens separate the eye into?
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What type of connective tissue makes up the fibrous layer of the eye? What two regions of the eye make up this layer?
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Sclera: structure and function
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opaque posterior region; protects and shapes eyeball; anchors extrinsic eye muscles
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Cornea: structure and function
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Corneal reflex
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Vascular layer of the eye: three regions
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Choroid: function and structure
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Ciliary body: structure and function
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Iris: structure and function
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a. axons of sensory neurons
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a. More is present in the thoracic region than compared to the lumbar region
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e. B and C
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a. Facial nerve
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b. acute glaucoma
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C) Fibers are not normally visible
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What are the three deep intrinsic muscles? Which direction do the fibers run?
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Which direction would your face turn towards when the left semispinalis muscles contracted?
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to the right
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Multifidus and rotatatores: which process to which? segments each? bilateral actions? unilateral action?
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Deepest Layer of back muscles (3) what movements do these muscles assist in?
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What direction does the rectus abdominis resist?
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Quadratus Lumborum: bilateral and unilateral action?
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Which back and trunk muscles produce contralateral rotation? Name the intermediate extrinsic mucles
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Sternocleidmastoid: bilateral and unilateral action?
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All of the above
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Function of middle ear, what is impedance matching?
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What is otis media and what causes it?
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"swimmers ear"
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