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27 Cards in this Set
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An "overwhelming burden" on Spain |
. The most obvious impact of foreign affairs on Spain was Charles's absences, especially after 1529 - Charles was only in Spain for 6 yars out of 26 afer 1529, although he didn't wholly neglect government in Spain . When Charles was absent, the real work of government was done by Gattinara until his death in 1530 . Then Cobos, Secretary of State, who oversaw the running of Spain, Itlay and the Indies - While Perrenot oversaw Charles' territories in northern Europe . In the 1530s, Spain was mostly overseen by Tavera and later, from 1543, Prince Philip as regent with Tavera and Cobos as advisors . Kamen credits their roles but says this "underestimates the enormous personal labour of Charles" in diplomacy and war and attributes abdication to not just gout and his appetite but to the huge workload |
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A view of 'Universal monarchy'? 1 |
. Some historians interpret that Charles' dreamn was to rule a universal monarchy across all his dominions . It seemed possible to contemporaries that Charles, with his huge lands, could become the primary rule over all Christian countries - But there was little in Charles's own writings to support this view and in these he continually refers to his House (his Habsburg dynasty) as of major importance . Gattinara certainly had a universal heory of empire that would aim to forge peace in Christian Europe while allowing concerted action against the Turk . Kilsby argues that Charles had no grand plan to bring all his lands under one rule with common institutions, and indeed he would have known that each of the areas would have opposed this . Charles was rarely in a position to concentrate on any one problem before dealing with another due to his huge inheritance, fighting Protestants and fighting Islam . Kamen says he 'lacked the means' for a universal monarchy, even if desired, as the only thing that tied his various lands together was him |
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France 1 |
. The interest of Charles in Spanish foreign affairs was in part a legacy from his grandfather's actions - Ferdinand of Aragon had adopted an outlook which aimed to gain security against the French along the common frontier with France and Italy . 1516 Treaty of Noyon - Charles agreed to marry the daughter of King Francis I of France - But his agreement lapsed after relations between France and Spain deteriorated as a result of the Imperial election and the beginning of the Habsburg-Valous wars from 1521 . In 1521, Francis I of France launched an attack on Navarre and captured Pamplona, but was soon driven out . The attack was really a diversion to draw Charles away from northern Italy and to take advantage of interal unrest in Spain - Otherwise the boundary on the Pyrenees seemed acceptable to both sides |
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France 2 |
. Equally serious to Charles was the French invasion of Milan in 1521 and it was the situation in northen Italy which resulted in most of the fighting in the Habsburg-valois conflict during the 1520s - Charles held the upper hand in these engangements . Charles claimed Milan as an imperial fief and as the lynchpin to hold together the two halves of his great empire - it was not 'Spanish' territory . During the 1520s the French continually tried to press into Itlay, but the Spanish won a tremendous victory at the Battle of Pavia in 1525 . Charles captured Francis I of France, imprisoning him in Madrid - In January 1526 Francis I was forced to sign the Treaty of Madrid - French relinquished their claim on Milan and Burgundy . Back home Francis refused to carry out the terms of the Treaty - he was supported by England and the new Pope Clement VII and the Italian princes . This shows that Charles's successes, ironically, only led to the creation of further hostility from other European states - Milan remained as a part of Charles's empire, ruled by a viceroy appointed from Spain . From 1528-29 there was one final French expedition into Naples but they were defeated at the Battle of Landriano in 1529 - Charles was helped by the timely defection of Genoese naval admiral Andrea Doria and his key mercenary naval fleet in the Meditarranean |
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France 3 |
. Away from these traditional Spanish interests, Charles' long wars with france had little to do directly with Spanish interests . Much of the conflict was driven by French fears of Habsburg encirclement - Charles controlled Spain, Naples, HRE and the Low Countries which all provoked French concerns abotu his dominant position . The Habsburg-Valois Wart made the French afraid that Charles wanted 'universal monarchy' to dominate Europe . Thus, there were considerable and costly engagements with the french in the North (Burgundy and Netherlands) . Charles was successful in Italy by 1529 (Peace of Cambrai) - Charles left in control of Italy, France in control of Burgundy . From 1529 onwards most energy was spent looking after his northern European affairs and stemming Protestantism . In 1536, Charles offered Francis a duel to solve matters!! - Francis refused |
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France 4 |
. 1524-44 - The conflict was waged on the border of France and the Netherlands . In 1547, the new aggressive French king Henry II came to the throne 'when Charles in Northern Europe was at the most vulnerable stage of his career' - Kamen . Henry II made alliances with German princes and even the Turks - and according to Kamen 'succeeded in imposing intolerable and expensive pressure on the emperor' . 1552-53 - Charles tried to recover his overlordship of Metz (N.W France) - A costly siege which resulted in defeat and failure for Charles . Charles spent 2.5 million ducats on the siege - by this time the interest rates charged by foreign financiers were astronomical, over 50%) . The French were right to be fearful of Habsburg encirclement - In 1554 Charles advanced the marriage of Mary Tudor, Queen of England, to his son and heir, Philip |
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Consequences of wars with France |
. Security on the northern frontier (Pyrenees) was preserved . Communications were preserved between Spain and Naples . From 1528 Charles had Genoese Admiral Doria to work with in the Mediterranean . For the most part, the French (Habsburg-Valois) wars had little to do with Spain but impacted as they diverted him from Spain . Italian bankers continued to provide Charles with necessary loans . Castile's resources were heavily used and led to financial and economic problems in Spain . The French struck deals with other of Charles's enemies - the Turks and the German Protestants, thus intesnifying his conflict in these areas . The wars in general also created respect for Spain and it was considered to be one of Europe's most powerful states |
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Germany 1 |
. HRE brought with it prestige, but also much responsibility - Charles had to secure the succession, protect Christianity, defend his territories from attack and defend the customs, rights and privileges of his territories . Such burdens and duties led to much pressure on Charles and contributed significantly to his abdication . Historians have suggested that the vast territory meant he was never fully in control in Germany and meant governing Spain by regents, as he was largely absent from 1529 . In addition his Imperial position also led to the Comuneros and Germania Revolts, even if only indirectly . Charles' power in the HRE was undermined by its structure - HRE fractured politcally and religiously (Roughly 300 different states ruled by individual princes and knights) . The main problem for Charles was the lack of a standing army, no proper taxation system, and having to deal with the political demands of powerful magnates - The Protestantism and the Turks thrown in the mix! |
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Germany 2 |
. Charles's greatest single problem within the HRE was the Protestant challenge - The rise of influence of Lutheranism was to provide a backbone of political and religious opposition to Charles from many German states, especially in Northern Germany . His absence from the Empire between 1522-30 (seven long years in Spain) did contribute to his inability to successfully deal with the growing Protestant challenge - Charles first tried to use a negotiated settlement or a compromise but eventually had to resort to war . From 1529 Charles faced the formation of the Schmalkaldic League - During the 1530s there was no military conflict, but failed attempts by Charles to reach a religious and political solution . The weaker Charles was in the Empire the better for the French - this explains why the French were prepared to assist the Protestants from time to time . This was one of Charles's constant problems - his enemies saw him as too powerful and therfore were prepared to enter into league with each other to disrupt Charles - The most perfidious in this respect was Charles |
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Germany 3 |
. The problem of Lutheranism in Germany was constant, 1529-56 . Some princes supported Luther as a way of gaining greater political independence from Charles - As HRE he was supposed to support the Pope in dealing with heresy and also had to deal with attacks on the HRE by Ottoman Turks . Thusm his attention and resources were drawn into having to deal with multiple major problems . Charles was only present in Spain for a total of 6 years after 1529 and it was alrgely the problem of German Protestantism that kept him away . It was also this which largely created the pressure which promopted his abdication in 1556 |
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Germany 4 |
. In 1531, Charles successfully ensured his brother Ferdinand was elected as his heir to the HRE - But this cost him further dets to foregin bankers to pay for brides and it also created further political tension in the HRE as opponents resented Charles's actions . During the 1530s Charles tried to reach an agreed solution on religious conflict with the Protestants, but this was unsuccessful . This was shown at the 1541 Diet of Regensburg, a meeting to try and resolve the Protestant/Catholic issue - Two months of negotiations collapsed with no common ground being reached . 1545-49 Council of Trent - Series of major meetings within the Catholic Church about how to deal with the Protestant challenge - no real concessions to Protestant issues . In 1546, Protestants feared that the emperor was planning a military campaign against them and gatherted their forces - The struggle lasted from 1546-55, Charles used troops from the Netherlands/Italy and Spain and the empire . Battle of Muhlberg, 1547 - Victory in battle for Charles's forces over the German Protestant Schmalkaldic League, but this did not bring Charles closer to victory as it only inspired yet another alliance of enemies against him |
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Germany 5 |
. Charles attempted to produce terms of a compromise settlement in the form of the Interim of Augsburg in 1548, where some religious concessions were granted to the Protestants - but his was not a proper settlement . In 1552, an alliance was formed by Maurice of Saxony against Charles - This included French involvement under new King Henry II . Maurice of Saxony is a clear example of how difficult it was for Charles to successfully control matters in Germany . Educated as a Lutheran and originally a membr of the Schmalkaldic League, Maurice fought for Charles against the Turks in 1542, against the French in 1544 and at Muhlberg in 1547 - but after Muhlberg he was fearful of Charles's power and turned agaisnt him . Events in 1552, including Charles fleeing from Austria for a time under pressure from Maurice, exposed Charles's position and showed that his victory at Muhlberg 5 years earlier had not produced final victory . Kamen says the climax of disappointment came in 1552-53 when he failed to take back Metz (S.E. Netherlands) from the French . Charles then had to give into Lutheran demands at the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 - At Augsburg, states could choose to be entirely Catholic or entirely Protestant . Charles has been criticised for the fact that he could have made this decision 20 or so years ealier and avoided all the costly strife . The 1550s marked for Charles a period of considerable failure in Germany |
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Germany - Side view |
. As Spain remained untouched by the Reformation, it is easy to argue that Charles' determination to destroy heresy in Germany was not in Spain's interests . This view tends to miss the point though, as Spain was the most deeply militant Catholic country in Europe at the time - deeply worried that heresy might spread to its shores, it was a bulwark against the spread of heresy . In this way Charles' crusade against the heretics won approval from the Spanish Church and from many of the bobles and hidalgos who fought in his numerous campaigns in Europe - It provided an outlet and opportunity for such nobles . In addition to fighting heresy, the campaigning in Germany and the Low Countries confirmed Spain's great power status |
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Consequences of problems in Germany |
. Problems in Germany were a serious drain on Charles's efforts, time and resources . Castile's resources were heavily used and led to financial and economic problems . There was a sense that Charles was upholding the spirit of Catholicism and therefore his conflict against the Protestants was seen as part of a broader crusading zeal . But this support was limited by the view that this was far from Spain and was a serious drain on resources - Involvement was scarcely in Spain's interests . Conflict in Germany also eroded Spain's position elsewhere by spreading attention and resources thinly - e.g. Inability to defeat the Turkish menace; France imposed a consistent threat and took advantage of Charles's problems in HRE . The pressure of his German problems played a key part in Charles's abdication in 1556 |
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The Turks 1 |
. In 1536 Charles declared before Pope Paul III 'My intention is not to war against Christians but against the infidel' - however, this aim was rather overtaken by events with the development of the Protestant challenge in Germany . Kamen says this statement in part was directed against the French who were in league with the turks - But he concludes that Charles was committed to the anti-Muslim struggle and saw it as a divine mission . Kamen 'for once, Spanish sympathies coincided entirely with his...' - this was both from a religious desire and the more pragmatic view that the Muslim threat needed to be dealt with to ensure the securtiy of Spain . The Ottoman Empire spread from modern day Hungary to Syria - Their Islamic faith, thirst for land and thus threat to Mediterranean coast was a diversion that distracted Spain from gaining more land in North Africa |
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The Turks 2 |
. Charles fought the Turks in central and eastern Europe as they advanced up the Danube . The Turks briefly laid siege to Vienna in 1529, their further advance westwards - Spanish forces played a minor role in this struggle that was led by Ferdinand, Charles' brother . The Castilian Cortes pointedly refused to vote funds for this war in 1527 - it was not in the 'Spanish' sphere of interest . Suleiman the Magnificent was the new Sultan from 1520 and by 1526 he had taken Hungary (Battle of Mohacs) . The Turks beseiged Vienna in 1529 with 100,000 men, although they had to withdraw for the winter - They returned in 1532 and Charles took his armies to defend the city . He was cheated out of battle as the Turks were held up at the tiny fortress of Guns - One advantage for the Christians was that Vienna was difficult to take as it was so far from main Ottoman bases . By 1547 Hungary was divided into three, Transylvania became autonomous, Suleiman took central Hungary and Ferdinand took the western end . More than 20 years of sporadic conflict had brought limited gains but some stability |
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The Turks 3 |
. Charles also fought the Turks in the eastern and southern Mediterranean where the Ottoman's Arab allies sought to destroy Spanish outposts set up by Ferdinand and Isabella . Charles' concerns with the safety of Austria left him less time to take on Islamic forces in the Mediterranean where Spanish interests were directly at stake . From 1516 onwards, Barbarossa had attaacked Spain and Italy . Charles had two advantages - Doria (Imperial Admiral) from 1528 and the Knights of St John occupied Malta from 1530 but Barbarossa continued to dominate the western Mediterranean using bases in North Africa . In 1529, Barbarossa seized Penon of Algiers, from Spain, a small island off the coast of Algiers and used it to make Arab raids on the coast of valencia - This furthered the ever present fear that Valencia Moors might be stirred up into rebellion by such raids . This was one motivation for Charles extending the excpulsion of the Moors to Aragon in 1525 |
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The Turks 4 |
. Khairedin Barbarossa, north African, gained the favour of the Ottoman emperors and in 1533 was Grand Admiral of the Ottoman Fleet and Governor of Algiers . Spain's activities were hampered by a lack of a Mediterranean fleet until 1528 when the Genoese mercenary Andrea Doria brought his fleet over to the Emperor . Given all Charles' other activities, there was no action in the Mediterranean until the 1530s . Tunis, 1535 - Charles organised a great naval expedition (300 transport ships, 30,000 men) which captured Tunis and expelled the Ottoman admiral Barbarossa - Doria played his part alongisde 10,000 Spanish troops in this important victory . However, this was the high point of Charles' Mediterranean policy - It could not be followed up because of Charles's commitments elsewhere in Europe . Kamen 'the two decade after Tunis, however, saw a slow deterioration' in Spain's power in the Mediterranean - 'due primarily to Charles's commitments in northern Europe' |
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Challenges to Spanish power in the Mediterranean |
. Battle of Prevesa - In 1538 the Spanish naval forces fought a minor naval battle against Barbarossa at Prevesa and Charles was defeated, having limited funds and manpower . In 1541 disaster struck when the Imperial fleet was destroyed by a storm before it could take Algiers (Barbarossa had captured it in 1518) - The force was almost as large as the one that had taken Tunis, Hernando Cortes was on baord; This was the last significant attempt under Charles to destroy the infidel . In 1543 the Turks struck a deal with the French, whereby their fleet could winter in the French Mediterranean port of Toulon, thus making it easier to launch attacks on Spanish shipping - The supply of corn from Italy to Spain was under threat as a result . Barbarossa died in 1546 aged 80 but the pirate Dragut continued the erosion of Spanish power - Tripoli was lost in 1551, Penon de Velez in 1554, Bougie in 1555 |
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The Turks overview |
. Thus, the Muslim threat was not contained . By the end of the reign, Spain only had 4 outposts left in North Africa - Oran, Melilla, Mers-el-Kebir and La Goleta . From the late-1530s, the Spanish were under pressure in the struggle at sea and in North Africa . Historians often stress the strength of Spanish Catholic faith and a sense of mission provided a determination to resist . McClive says that the Turks did not attack and defeat Spain because the distance between Turkey and Spain was huge - e.g. the Ottoman fleet had to winter in Toulon from 1540-41 and had they not been able to take advantage of the traditional rivalry with France/Spain, they couldn't have threatened the western Mediterranean at all . The Turks were, however, unable to dominate the western Mediterranean completely and this preserved some Spanish security |
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Consequences of conflict agaisnt the Turks |
. This stretched Charles into eastern Europe as well as the Mediterranean . The Mediterranean theatre was the more immediate challenge to Spain . Castile's resources were heavily used and led to financial and economic problems . Spain's North African territories were eroded - Spain and its Mediterranean coastline were still open to Muslim attack . Although the Turks were checked on the Danube, Spanish pre-eminence in the western Mediterranean was under threat . Ferdinand had begun a polciy of restricting Muslim influence in the western Mediterranean - but he had not pressed it home as Cisneros had wished; Was that failure now coming home to roost? |
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Portugal |
. Dynastic security was enhanced through a series of marriages engineered by Charles between the Habsburgs and the Portuguese royal household . Charles himself married Isabella of Portugal in 1526 . His son Philip married Mary of Portugal in 1543 . Charles arranged for his eldest sister, Eleonore, to marry the ageing King Emmanuel of Portugal in 1517 . In 1542, Charles had his youngest daughter, Joanna, married to the heir to the Portuguese throne - The birth of their son in 1554 paved the way for such close family relationships between the crowns of Spain and Portugal, that in 1580 Philip II of Spain was able to claim the crown of Portugal |
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End Notes on foreign policy |
. Kamen argues that Spaniards saw Charles's foreign policy as a 'departure from traditional Spanish interests' . The Cortes of 1527 refused to pay for war against the Turks as the struggle was in Hungary (in the Habsburg domain) - Also the Habsburg-Valois war can be seen as traditional France/Spain antagonism but not when the fighting started to be played out in northen Europe from the 1540s onwards . 'Spaniards...continued to be critical of Habsburg policy; only when Charles took up the struggle against Turkish expansion in the western Mediterranean was he seen to be reverting to the needs of the peninsula, and to the crusading ideals of Isabella and Cisneros' - Kamen . Charles' foreign policy thus brought Spain little joy . Northern Italy was captured but France remained a serious menace . The Protestant Reformation in Northern Europe had become established and the Christians were on the retreat in the Mediterranean . Great power status of Spain came with a heavy price tag and considerable commitment |
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Successes for Spain 1 |
. Frontier between Castile/Aragon and France was secured . Respect for Spain as a European great power was clearly growing - Charles's armies were a force to ve reckoned with an no country could decide on a course of action without considering Spain . Charles as HRE brought prestige to Spain . Spain was at the forefront of the fight against heresy in Europe and against the Islamic threat from the Ottomans - This resulted in pride and a sense of Christian unity which recalled the spirit of crusading zeal in the Reconquista |
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Successes for Spain 2 |
. Charles acheived significant successes against the French in Italy, especially in the 1520s . Success in Italy guaranteed the lines of communication between Spain and Naples, ensured Charles still had access to Italian bankers for the much-needed loans, provided him with valuable assistance from Genoese Admiral Doria . Opportunities existed for Spanish grandees and hidalgos to be in Charles's many armies - This provided an outlet and opportunity for prestige and advancement . Security with regard to Portugal was guaranteed by a series of dynastic marriages |
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Failures for Spain 1 |
. Charles was seldom master of events with result being that he was constantly reacting to circumstances - This prevented a coherent approach to policy making . Ironically, any success for Charles (Such as in Italy in the 1520s) only led to the creation of concern and fear among other European states at the extent of Charles' strenght - thus, this perpetuated conflict, e.g. France feared 'Habsburg encirclement' and this perpetuated the Habsburg-Valois conflict throughout Charles' reign . Resentment from some in Spain that Charles's interests essentially lay in areas which had little direct interest to Spain - Charles was absent from Spain as a result of this involvement . The attention of Charles on so many other aspects outside of Spain meant he was unable to devote as much time to Spain - The result was a policy which resulted in Charles rather exploiting Spain rather than developing coherent policies for development |
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Failures for Spain 2 |
. Costs of war were enormous - Castile was ever harder pressed to meet the rising costs . By 1555 Charles had borrowed 29 million ducats and increasingly the interest payments on this were funded through the burdened finances of Castile . Thus, even significant money from the New World by-passed Spain without benefitting it - Resulted in less economic investment in Spain than there ought to have been? . Spanish finances and the economy were increasingly mortgaged to foreigners (bankers and merchants) as the exploitation of Spain icnreased to meet the requirements of Charles's wars . Charles was never able to fully concentrate on one aspect to see it through to a satisfactory solution - The outcome for Charles was mixed in his wars . Charles was never able to truly defear the French nor the German Protestant states - fortunes against the Turks were mixed . There were some losses in North Africa as the Turks made gains |
