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250 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What groups are hazards classified into? |
Geophysical Hydrological Climatological Biological |
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What is the risk equation? |
Risk = (hazard * vulnerability)/capacity to cope |
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Spatial impact |
Spread of impacts |
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How can humans make hazards worse? |
Building in floodplains Exploitation of natural resources Pollution - global warming Lack of education |
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How can we reduce hazard's impacts? |
Warnings/evacuation plans Earthquake resistant buildings Improve drainage systems Defenses - sea walls |
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What criteria does something need to fill to classify as a hazard? |
Clear origins No warning Involuntary risk Immediate loss of life Impacts last to future Requires emergency response |
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Give 3 things that could affect people responses to a hazard: |
Livelyhood Socio-economic status Past experiences |
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Park hazard response model: |
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What are the 3 types of responses? |
Fatalism, adaptation and fear |
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Fatalism |
All events are predetermined, inevitable, passive acceptance |
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What are the government reponses? |
Prediction Mitigation/preparation Management Prevention |
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What is a UN disaster? |
10+ dead 100+ affected Declaration of a state of emergency Request for international help |
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What was the scale of the Italian earthquake? |
Magnitude 6.2 IX on Mercalli Scale |
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What plates were involved in the Italian earthquake? |
Adriatic subdued under Eurasian |
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Why was the Italian earthquake so devastating? |
Shallow focus - 4km, channels more vibrations to surface structures |
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Give 3 primary impacts of the Italian earthquake: |
65,000 displaced, 300 dead and £700,000 earthquake proof school collapsed |
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Give 2 secondary impacts of the Italian earthquake? |
Damage was $11bn and landslides due to weaker sedimentary rock |
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What were the short term responses for the Italian earthquake? |
4400 search and rescue teams, 238 pulled from rubble + 600 restaurants donated €2 from each dish sold |
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What was the medium response for the Italian earthquake? |
Investigation into why the school collapsed |
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What was the long term response for the Italian earthquake? |
Prime Minister pledged £42 million to rebuilding |
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What were the 2 forms of management after the Italian earthquake? |
Rebuilding, disaster plans |
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What did this involve for rebuilding(Italian earthquake)? |
Not using brick and stone as easily break during earthquakes |
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What is the mantle split into? |
Lithosphere and Asthenosphere |
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What characteristics does the lithosphere have? |
Crust like |
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Inner core : |
5400°C Iron and nickel alloy 1200km radius Solid |
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Outer core: |
Fluid - less pressure 2300km thick 2700°C/4900°C Mostly iron and nickel |
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What is the mantle composed of? |
Silicates |
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What percentage of the earth's volume does it make up? |
84% |
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Continental crust: |
30-50km Granite Lower density Older Light in colour |
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Oceanic crust: |
5-10km thick Basalt Higher density Younger Darker |
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What are 3 places heat for convection currents from? |
Tidal friction Radioactive decay of isotopes Residual heat from formation of earth |
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What did Alfred Wegener propose? |
Theory of Pangea in 1912 |
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Why was his evidence rejected? |
Couldn't explain how plates moved |
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What did he call his theory? |
Continental drift |
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What 3 types of evidence are there? |
Biological Geology Climate |
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Give an example for biological: |
Fossils in South Africa the same as in Brazil |
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Give an example for geology: |
Same rocks in NW Europe and Appalachians in Eastern US |
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Give an example for climate: |
Coal in Antarctica, needs tropical conditions to form |
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Give an example of sea floor spreading: |
Atlantic ocean, discovered sub-marine mountain range, rock age varied - oldest near US,newest in centre of ocean |
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Paleomagnetism |
Magnetic anomalies found in rocks in sub-marine mountain range |
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What does palaeomagnetism involve? |
Earth's magnetic field flips periodically, lava cools, metallic elements align |
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What does palaeomagnetism allow scientists to do? |
Accurate determine the age of rocks |
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What did investigations on to the age of rocks find? |
Alternations in polarity were symmetrical in rocks either side of Mid-Atlantic Ocean Ridge. |
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What were the final 2 pieces of evidence for plate tectonics? |
Sea floor spreading and destruction of crust |
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What is gravitational sliding? |
Magma rises, heats surrounding rock, becomes.less dense, rises, forms a slope, cools, becomes more dense, slides down - results in sea floor spreading |
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What is slab pull? |
Sheer weight of subducted plate pulls rest of plate with it |
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Give an example of a constructive boundary: |
East African Rift Valley |
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Give an example of continental Vs continental: |
Himalayas |
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Give an example of oceanic Vs continental: |
Andes |
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Give and example of oceanic Vs oceanic: |
Japanese islands |
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Hotspot |
Small, extremely hot areas in the mantle |
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Mantle plume |
An area within the mantle where solid rock rises |
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Why does Hawaii form a chain? |
The hotspot stays still, its the overlying plate that moves |
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What is unique about hotspot volcanoes? |
They don't form at plate boundaries |
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Why are the older islands smaller? |
They are extinct, so aren't fed by magma, so erosion breaks them down |
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What are rift valley? |
Linear-shaped lowlands between several highlands/mountains |
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What always forms rift valleys? |
Extension at plate margins |
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What happens at conservative boundaries for rift valleys? |
Horizontally moving plates are subjected to bending and discontinuities - when these are in the same direction as the relative plate movement = rift valley |
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What happens at constructive boundaries for rift valleys? |
Plates separate, land falls, forms a Graban, forms steep sided valley, widens, fills with sediment |
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Mid-ocean ridge |
Where plates move apart and lava fills the gap, but in the ocean |
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What type of earthquakes do they produce? |
Frequent with a small magnitude |
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When does a collision occur? |
At s converging margin between 2 continental plates |
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Why is neither plate subducted at a collision zone? |
Granite isn't dense enough |
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What happens at a collision zone? |
Sandwiches ocean plate is subducted, plates meet and compress, forced upwards and undergo metamorphosis |
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Suture |
The bridge between the 2 continental plates |
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What happens to the Moho discontinuity? |
It sinks |
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Give an example of a collision: |
Himalayas |
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How old are old fold mountains, giving an example? |
200million years old - Appalachians |
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How old are young fold mountains, giving an example? |
10-25 million years old - Alps |
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How are fold mountains formed? |
Ocean filled with sediment, compressed, forced upwards |
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Anticlines |
Rock folded upwards |
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Synclines |
Rock folded downwards |
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Nappes |
When the rock is severely folded |
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What often forms at fold mountains? |
Glaciated valleys and ribbon lakes |
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Why do tourists often visit mountains? |
Winter sports Extreme tourism Scenic view |
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What plate boundary are ocean trenches formed at? |
Destructive |
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What is the angle of the subducted plate? |
45° |
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How do ocean trenches work? |
Oceanic plate is saturated with water, turns to steam, melts rock above - gas and magma cause violent eruptions due to pressure |
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What is the fastest and 2nd deepest trench? |
Tsonga |
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Where are most ocean trenches found? |
The Pacific Ring of Fire |
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Give an example of an ocean trenches on the Ring Of Fire? |
Mariana trench |
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What are island arcs? |
A chain of islands formed as a result of volcanic activity |
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What are the 2 types of island arc? |
Convex and concave |
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Where are most of them found? |
Pacific Ring of Fire and near Japan |
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An example of an island arc? |
The ring of fire is an island arc |
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Lava at constructive boundaries: |
Less viscous Basaltic Low in silica High temperature |
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Lava found at destructive margins: |
More viscous Andesitic/rhyolitic Lower temperature Slower flow |
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What is a pyroclastic flow made from? |
A mixture of gases and tephra |
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How fast do pyroclastic flows go? |
200m/s |
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How hot do pyroclastic flows get? |
800°C |
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What is tephra? |
Solid material that is ejected into the atmosphere |
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How can tephra vary in size? |
Ash to volcanic bombs |
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What are Nuées Ardentes ? |
Rapidly moving clouds of hot gases |
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What are Nuées Ardentes made from? |
Ash and lava fragments |
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How far do Nuées Ardentes travel? |
Not far, less than 50km |
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What is ash fall out? |
Heavier erupted material falls to earth |
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Name 5 gases release by a volcano? |
Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Sulphur dioxide Hydrogen sulphide Chlorine |
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Give an example of CO2 emissions? |
Lake Nyos, Cameroon |
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What happened at Lake Nyos? |
Magma, produced CO2, seeped through bottom of lake, water disturbed in storm, released CO2, travels down to village |
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Why did the CO2 sink? |
It's 1.5 times as dense as air |
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How far was the CO2 jet? |
100km/h |
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How many cattle died? |
3000 |
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What are Lahars? |
Volcanic mud-flows |
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What are Lahars made from? |
Melted ice and ash |
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Give an example of a lahar? |
Armero, Columbia |
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When did this the famous lahar happen? |
After eruption of Nevado Del Ruiz in November 1985 |
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Why do landslides occur? |
Volcanic gases form acidic groundwater, breaks down rock |
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Why does flooding occur? |
Glaciers melt |
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Give an example of flooding? |
Grimsvotn, Iceland 1996 |
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What is a tsunami? |
A giant sea wave |
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Give an example of a tsunami? |
Krakatoa, 1883 |
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What happened at Krakatoa? |
2/3 of island collapsed |
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What gas burns vegetation? |
CaF2 |
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What two chemicsls contaminate water? |
Chloride and fluoride |
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What do CO2 and CO cause? |
Asphyxiation |
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Why could ash cause temperature to drop? |
Ash reflects the sun's beams |
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Spatial distribution |
The arrangement of a phenomenon across the earth's surface |
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Active volcanoes |
Currently erupting |
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Dormant volcanoes |
Hasn't erupted recently, but expected to do so again |
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Extinct volcanoes |
Not erupted for 10,000 years, not expected to in a comparable time scale |
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What 4 things do scientists monitor at volcanoes? |
Gases Temperature Tremors Ground deformation |
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What is used to determine the gases? |
A mass spectrometer |
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What does a rise in temperature indicate? |
An eruption is imminent |
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What causes the tremors? |
Friction |
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How are tremors measured? |
Seismometer |
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How is ground deformation measured? |
A tilt meter |
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Mitigation |
The action of reducing the severity of something |
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Name 3 things that can be done on the lower slopes? |
Agriculture, mining and geothermal energy |
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What earthquakes occur at constructive margins? |
Shallow focus |
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What occur at conservative? |
Shallow focus |
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What occurs at destructive? |
Deeper focus |
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Benihoff zone |
Zone where earthquakes tend to occur |
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How many earthquakes does the UK experience each year? |
20-30 noticeable ones |
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What does the USGS aim to do? |
Prevent loss of life, minimise social and economic disruption |
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What is VDAP? |
The only rapid-response volcano team in the world, that was created after the Nevado Del Ruiz eruption |
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Hazard |
An event or process that is potentially destructive |
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Risk |
The magnitude of potential loss of life and property within the hazard area |
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What volcano erupts daily? |
Sakurajima in Kagoshima, Japan |
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What are the eruptions like in Japan? |
Some are a wisp of smoke, but the worse ones produce a 3 mile long ash cloud |
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What monitoring is in place in Japan? |
He USGS installed an early warning system |
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Moho discontinuity |
The Moho is the boundary between the crust and the mantle in the earth. |
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How thick is the Moho discontinuity? |
5-90km thick - depends on plate type |
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Is the focus or epicentre on the surface? |
The epicentre |
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Which types of focus is usually the least damaging? |
Deep |
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Which type of seismic wave are the fastest? |
Primary wave |
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Which can travel through only liquids? |
Secondary waves |
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Which, of primary and secondary is transverse? |
Secondary |
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Which are the most damaging? |
Surface waves |
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What records s and p waves? |
Seismographs |
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What does the number on the Richter scale show? |
The magnitude |
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What scale does the Richter scale use? |
Base 10 logarithmic |
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What does the Mercalli Scale measure? |
Intensity |
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What's different about the Mercalli Scale? |
It has no mathematical basis |
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What does the moment magnitude scale measure? |
Energy released |
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What base is the moment magnitude scale? |
32 |
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What is the primary hazard of earthquakes? |
Shock waves |
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What can affect shock waves? |
Geology - can amplify waves |
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What are the secondary hazards of earthquakes? |
Soil liquefaction Landslides and avalanches Tsunamis Fires Building collapse Destroyed Infrastructure |
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Liquefaction |
When soil with a high water content loses its mechanical strength when violently shaken, becoming more like a liquid |
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Landslides |
Slope failure as a result of the ground shaking |
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What happens when a tsunami reaches shallower water? |
It rapidly increases in height |
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What are the first warning signs of a tsunami? |
Drawdown - reduction in sea level |
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How tall can tsunamis get? |
25m |
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Give an example of a famous tsunami? |
The Asian Tsunami, 2004 |
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Why was the Asian tsunami so devastating? |
No early warning system/communication in place |
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What was special about the Asian tsunami? |
Longest ever faulting recorded 8-10 minutes |
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What causes fires? |
Burst has pipes |
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What is also a problem of burst pipes? |
Can't get water to extinguish fire |
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How can a building fail? |
Soil fails Foundations fail Soft floors fail Building joint fails The building fails |
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Short term impacts of earthquakes? |
Building collapse, disruption to transport and communication, fires and tsunami |
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Long-term impacts of earthquakes? |
Disruption to supply lines, economic disruption, unemployment, cost of rebuilding, spread of disease, rehousing |
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What are the 3 ways buildings can be improved? |
Cross-bracing, shear walls and shock absorbers |
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Give an example of an improved building design building? |
The Transamerica pyramid in San Francisco |
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What is the problem with the 3 solutions for improving buildings earthquake proofness? |
Expensive |
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What is the alternative to building new buildings that are earthquake proof? |
Retrofitting existing buildings |
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What is the problem with retrofitting? |
Won't be as strong as brand new purpose built infrastructure |
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What makes earthquakes particularly hard to deal with? |
They can't be prevented |
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Where is Sicily? |
South of Italy, 4km separation |
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Where is Etna? |
On convergent boundary between African and Eurasian plates, covering and area of 450 square miles, and being 11,000ft tall |
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When was Etna' most powerful eruption? |
1669 |
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Impacts of Etnas most powerful eruption? |
1500 died, 20000 left homeless |
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What did the locals do to divert the lava at Etna? |
Dug trenches and installed walls |
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As a result of local interference at Etna, what regulations were made? |
That you can't interfere with the natural flow of lava. |
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Why does the lava not usually cause danger to human life? |
It's very viscous, so travels slowly, allowing people to evacuate |
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How far did the ash cloud go in 2017 from Etna? |
Bucharest |
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Who is the evacuation plan for at Etna? |
Only people on Mount Etna itself |
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Why is the plan flawed on Etna? |
Ash is often erupted, so planes won't be able to take off |
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How do locals view Etna? |
Barbaqued over the lava, so not very scared - need to stay as they make their living from crops that grow on the slopes |
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List 3 short term responses of Etna? |
US army dropped concrete blocks to try and stop the lava (2001), Italian government gave £5.6 million and closed the closest airport - above ash regulation levels at the time |
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Give 2 long term responses of Etna? |
Increased monitoring equipment and the government froze taxes so that farmers could get back on their feet |
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How do they now try and predict lava flows? |
By using computer programs from previous data and equations |
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When was the Haiti earthquake? |
January 12th 2010 |
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Rough timeline of Haiti earthquake: |
Struck capital, shaking felt in US navy base, tsunami in Petit Paradis |
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How deep was the focus at Haiti? |
13km |
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What tectonic plates were involved at the Haiti earthquake? |
Gonave microplate and Caribbean plate (conservative) |
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How long did the stress build up for at Haiti? |
200 years |
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What were the perceptions of Haiti and why? |
Not worried as infrequently receive earthquakes that cause serious damage - 3 in last 100 years |
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What was the magnitude at Haiti? |
7 |
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What were the 3 causes for the damage in Haiti? |
Deforestation Climate Lack of previous earthquakes |
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Economic short term impact at Haiti? |
$14bn in damage |
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Economic long term impact at Haiti? |
Set back economy 50 years |
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Social short term impact at Haiti? |
220,000 died |
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Social long term impact at Haiti? |
1 million still displaced after a year |
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Environmental short term impact at Haiti? |
50% of buildings collapsed - dust pollution |
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Political short term impact at Haiti? |
60% of government buildings destroyed |
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What made the earthquake impacts worse at Haiti? |
2008 hurricanes that killed 800 people |
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What were the short term responses at Haiti? |
US sent 10,000 soldiers Received €330 million from EU 115,000 tents provided |
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What were the long term responses at Haiti? |
Built schools and trained teachers Provided water for 1.7 million people |
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What made the responses slower in Haiti? |
Airport destroyed Small police force |
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When was hurricane Sandy? |
October 2012 |
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How big did Sandy get? |
2000 mile diameter |
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How strong did Sandy get? |
Category 3 |
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What path did Sandy take and how long did it last? |
From Caribbean to US, lasting 11 days |
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What were the perceptions of Sandy? |
Coastal parts of US concerned over flooding as happens often, but people further in land weren't that concerned |
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What caused Sandy? |
Didn't dissipate like expected in colder water, but low pressure form arctic strengthened it - high pressure over Atlantic pushed it over the coast |
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What were the social impacts of Sandy? |
233 killed 200,000 homes destroyed 8 million in US had power outages |
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What were the political impacts of Sandy? |
One week before US election, created tension - was delayed |
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Environmental impacts of Sandy? |
Fires (Breezy Point) and Storm Surges |
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Economic impacts of Sandy? |
$75 bn damage overall + states had to borrow resources, expensive |
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Responses at Sandy? |
4000 red cross workers sent $2 million in cash grants Bill to rebuild coast, $50.5 bn |
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International responses for Sandy? |
EU donated €6 million to Caribbean £850,000 BRC - to Cuba |
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When was Typhoon Haiyan? |
November 2013 |
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How strong was Haiyan? |
Category 5, up to 235 mph winds |
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Rough timeline of Haiyan? |
Started in Pacific, moved towards Palau, then Philippines, Vietnam and China |
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What were the perceptions of Haiyan? |
Ignored fear - need fishing industry Got regular disasters, survived them, maybe got complacent |
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What were the causes of Haiyan? |
Pacific at that time of year often produces category 5 storms, with global warming g, sea temperatures were higher |
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Social impacts of Haiyan? |
7500 killed 1.9 mill made homeless |
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Political impact of Haiyan? |
2500 workers to just 70 |
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Environmental impacts of Haiyan? |
175,000 acres of farmland lost |
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Economic impacts of Haiyan? |
$2.9 bn damage overall, lost 120,000 tonnes of sugar - couldn't trade |
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Responses at Haiyan? |
Government declared a state of calamity, people evacuated to neighbouring provinces, government spent $624 million on disaster reduction scheme |
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International responses of Haiyan? |
UN gave £464 million, along with help from 42 countries |
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Coriolis Force |
The rotation of the earth which deflects objects and air moving along the earth's surface |
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Latent Heat |
The heat required to turn a solid into a liquid, or a liquid into a gas without a change in temperature |
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Tropical storm |
A storm system with a closed circulation around a centre of low pressure, fuelled by the heat released when moist air rises and condenses |
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What measures wind? |
Beaufort scale |
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Requirement to form a storm: |
26°C Thunderstorm cluster Earth's rotation Light wind shear |
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Storm surge |
An abnormal rise of water generated by a storm, over and above the normal tides - causes flooding |
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Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale : |
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How are landslides caused? |
Heavy rain saturates the ground, becomes unstable, can fail |
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When naming, it's alternative boys name and girls name whilst working its way through the alphabet, which letters and why aren't used? |
Q, U, X, Y, Z becuase there aren't enough names |
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Formation of storms: |
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Where do storms have to be? |
Beyond 5° North or south of equator |
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What is the global distribution of storms? |
Most in intertropical convergence zone - between 5° and 25° |
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What affects the storm magnitude? |
Coriolis force and latent heat |
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How many storms per year become hurricanes? |
6 |
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How many become major hurricanes? |
2 |
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How is intensity of storms calculated? |
Inferred from analysis of cloud top temperatures - can only get wind speed if there's landmass under the storm |
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How is the eye found? |
By tracing the rainbands or the relative motion of the clouds |
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What is volcano plan called for Versuvius? |
NEPVA |
