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321 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What's the Hardy-Weinberg equation? |
p^2+2pq+q^2=1 |
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Hardy-Weinberg equilibriumwhat it says?what the equation says? |
Frequencies of alleles remain constant given its not influenced by mutation,migration,selection and genetic drift. Frequencies of alleles remain constant given its not influenced by mutation,migration,selection and genetic drift. |
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What's the Hardy-Weinberg equation says? |
The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation states that in the absence of evolutionary forces, the frequencies of genotypes in a population remain constant over generations, with \(p^2 + 2pq + q^2\) equaling 1. And also p+q =1 |
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What is the Calvin Cycle? |
The cycle that is responsible for conversion of CO2 into Organic molecules such as Glucose |
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what are the three steps of Calvin cycle? Where does it takes place? |
1. carbon fixation2. reduction3. regeneration. Stroma |
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where does the translation of antibodies occur in eukaryotic cells |
RER |
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Function of Golgi Apparatus |
1. **Protein Modification:** Modifies proteins by adding carbohydrates and other chemical groups.2. **Sorting and Packaging:** Sorts proteins and packages them into vesicles for specific cellular destinations.3. **Lysosome Formation:** Involved in the formation of lysosomes containing digestive enzymes.4. **Secretion:** Facilitates the secretion of proteins and lipids from the cell.5. **Transport Vesicle Formation:** Forms transport vesicles to carry proteins to their intended locations within or outside the cell. |
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What are the 3 vesicle protein coats and their routes? |
CLathrin (GB to PMb) COPII(ER to GB) COPIII(GB to ER) |
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What organelle is responsible for drugs(alcohol) detoxification and metabolism |
SER |
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Functions of Smooth ER |
1. synthesizes lipids(cholesterol for test x) 2. metabolizes carbs 3. detoxifies drugs and poisons, 4. stores calcium ions |
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Functions of ROugh ER |
1.Protein Synthesis: Ribosomes on the RER synthesize proteins. 2. Protein Folding: Ensures proper folding of synthesized proteins. 3.Post-translational Modifications: Adds essential modifications like glycosylation. 4.Quality Control: Checks and ensures the quality of synthesized proteins. 1.Protein Synthesis: Ribosomes on the RER synthesize proteins.2. Protein Folding: Ensures proper folding of synthesized proteins.3.Post-translational Modifications: Adds essential modifications like glycosylation.4.Quality Control: Checks and ensures the quality of synthesized proteins.5.Secretory Protein Production: Produces proteins for secretion.6.Membrane Protein Synthesis: Synthesizes proteins for cellular membranes.7.Transport Vesicle Formation: Forms vesicles for protein transport to the Golgi apparatus. 5.Secretory Protein Production: Produces proteins for secretion. 6.Membrane Protein Synthesis: Synthesizes proteins for cellular membranes. 7.Transport Vesicle Formation: Forms vesicles for protein transport to the Golgi apparatus. |
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Eight stages of Erickson PS devpt |
1.trust vs mistrust 0-12. autonomy vs shame/doubt.1 to 33.initiative vs Guilt 3 to 6 4. industry vs inferiority 6 to 125. identity vs role confusion. 12 to 186. intimacy vs isolation 18 to 407. generativity vs stagnation 40 to 65 8.integrity vs despair |
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Things that can pass through nuclear pores . Things cannot |
Ions, Water, RNA, small Proteins, Nucleotides, Particles.Ribosome subunits. No entry: large structures, like organelles,dna, ribosomes(fully assembled) etc unrecognized items too Highly regulated |
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Why is Glucose converted to Lactic acid |
Lactic acid is produced in the absence of oxygen during fermentation as a way to regenerate NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), an essential molecule for glycolysis. This allows cells to continue producing ATP (energy) when oxygen is limited. |
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What's the key enzyme in Lactic Acid fermentation |
Lactate dehyrdrogenase. During lactic acid fermentation, the key enzyme involved is lactate dehydrogenase. This enzyme catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate (a product of glycolysis) to lactic acid by using NADH, which is then oxidized back to NAD+ in the process. |
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What are the functions of persoxisome? |
1.Beta-oxidation of fatty acids2.Detoxification(H2O2)3.Synthesis of plasmalogens4.Metabolism of reactive oxygen species (ROS) 1.Beta-oxidation of fatty acids2.Detoxification(H2O2)3.Synthesis of plasmalogens4.Metabolism of reactive oxygen species (ROS)5.Glyoxylate cycle6.Metabolism of amino acids7.Lipid biosynthesis(in addition to their breakdown) 1.Beta-oxidation of fatty acids2.Detoxification(H2O2)3.Synthesis of plasmalogens4.Metabolism of reactive oxygen species (ROS)5.Glyoxylate cycle6.Metabolism of amino acids7.Lipid biosynthesis(in addition to their breakdown) 1.Beta-oxidation of fatty acids2.Detoxification(H2O2)3.Synthesis of plasmalogens4.Metabolism of reactive oxygen species (ROS)5.Glyoxylate cycle6.Metabolism of amino acids7.Lipid biosynthesis(in addition to their breakdown) 5.Glyoxylate cycle 6.Metabolism of amino acids 7.Lipid biosynthesis(in addition to their breakdown) |
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Catabolism? |
🐈 breaking apart into simpler things. |
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Anabolism? |
🐘 Building blocks into Bigger things |
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Chyme is passed from stomach to Small intestine through ______? |
Pyloric Sphincter |
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What's phagosome |
Phagocytosis is a type of endocytosis where cells engulf solid particles, such as bacteria, cellular debris, or other large particles, into membrane-bound vesicles known as phagosomes. Lysosome fuse into phagosomes containing engulfed material, and become phagolysosome. |
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What's Symporter |
A symporter is a type of integral membrane protein involved in facilitated diffusion or active transport of molecules across a cell membrane. It functions by simultaneously transporting two different substances in the same direction, either both into the cell or both out of the cell. This cooperative transport of molecules is a crucial mechanism for nutrient uptake and ion transport in various cells. An example is the sodium-glucose symporter, which transports both sodium ions and glucose into cells. |
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What's an Antiporter |
An antiporter is a type of integral membrane protein that facilitates the simultaneous transport of two different molecules or ions across a cell membrane but in opposite directions. Essentially, an antiporter "swaps" one substance for another. This type of transport is often involved in maintaining ion balance and regulating concentrations of various substances within cells. An example is the sodium-potassium pump, which exchanges sodium ions out of the cell for potassium ions into the cell. |
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What's Axoneme? |
The axoneme is a structure found in eukaryotic cells, specifically in the tail (flagellum or cilium) of certain cells. It consists of microtubules arranged in a characteristic 9+2 pattern, referring to a ring of nine microtubule doublets surrounding a central pair. This arrangement provides structural support and facilitates the movement of the flagellum or cilium. The axoneme is involved in the beating or movement of these cellular appendages, playing a crucial role in processes such as cell motility and the movement of fluids over cell surfaces. |
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Microtubules pattern in Centrosome Cilia or Flagella Cytoskeleton |
9+0 9+2 13 parallel |
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Each components of cytoskeleton and building blocks |
1. **Microfilaments (Actin Filaments):** - **Building Blocks:** Actin filaments are composed of globular actin monomers (G-actin) that polymerize to form long, thin filaments. These filaments are often arranged in a double helix.2. **Intermediate Filaments:** - **Building Blocks:** Intermediate filaments have a more diverse composition, as different cell types may use different proteins. Examples include keratins, vimentins, and neurofilaments. The monomers for intermediate filaments are fibrous proteins.3. **Microtubules:** - **Building Blocks:** Microtubules are composed of tubulin protein subunits. The basic building blocks are α-tubulin and β-tubulin dimers, which polymerize longitudinally to form protofilaments. Thirteen protofilaments then associate laterally to generate the tubular structure of a microtubule.These components, with their specific building blocks, contribute to the cytoskeleton's overall structure and function in providing mechanical support, facilitating intracellular transport, and participating in various cellular processes. |
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What's Arp 2/3 |
The Arp2/3 complex is a protein complex involved in the regulation of the actin cytoskeleton, particularly in the nucleation of new actin filaments. Arp2/3 stands for Actin-Related Protein 2/3. |
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Robertsonian translocation |
Robertsonian translocation is a type of chromosomal rearrangement that involves the fusion of two acrocentric chromosomes. Acrocentric chromosomes have their centromere near one end, and in this translocation, the long arms of two acrocentric chromosomes break and fuse, creating a single, larger chromosome. |
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Cytoskeleton involved in cytoplasmic streaming/protplasmic movt. |
Actin filaments(myosin) |
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What's prokaryotic flagella composed of |
Flagellin |
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What organelle does glycosylation to proteins |
GOlgiA |
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What's lactic acid fermentation |
Lactic acid fermentation is a metabolic process where glucose is converted into lactic acid. It occurs in some bacteria and animal cells, especially during intense exercise when oxygen is scarce. |
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Cytoskeleton involved in phagocystosis |
Actin(microfilaments) |
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What's the motor protein that works with microtubule to generate motion, in cilia and flagella |
Dynein |
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Steroid structure |
Four fused carbon rings, granting them lipophilic properties. Functional groups and side chains determine their biological activity. Examples include testosterone and estrogen. |
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Structure of Phopholipid |
Phospholipids consist of a glycerol backbone, with a phosphate-containing (hydrophilic) head and two fatty acid (hydrophobic) tails attached. |
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Sphingosine? |
Sphingosine: Sphingosine serves as the backbone for sphingolipids, a class of lipids found in cell membranes. Sphingolipids have diverse functions including cell signaling, cell-cell recognition, and membrane stability. |
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Sphingo-lipids |
X- is functional group |
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Sphingosine structure |
a lengthy aliphatic chain and an amino group positioned at the 2-position. |
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What's Saponification |
Saponification involves the hydrolysis of ester bonds in fats or oils by a strong base, which results in the formation of soap (the salt of a fatty acid) and glycerol (the alcohol). |
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Gangliosides |
Gangliosides are a type of glycosphingolipid, which are molecules composed of a lipid and a carbohydrate portion. They are found primarily in the outer layer of the cell membrane and are particularly abundant in nerve cells. Gangliosides play important roles in cell recognition, cell signaling, and cell-to-cell communication in the nervous system. Ceramide+ oligosaccharide |
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Sphingolipid types |
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Nonsense mutation" |
"Nonsense mutation" refers to a type of mutation in DNA that leads to the creation of a premature stop codon, resulting in the production of a shortened, typically nonfunctional protein. This mutation disrupts the normal process of protein synthesis, leading to potentially harmful effects on the organism. |
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Conservative mutation |
A conservative mutation is a type of genetic mutation where the altered DNA sequence results in the substitution of one amino acid with another that has similar chemical properties. This substitution typically occurs within the protein-coding region of a gene and may not significantly affect the structure or function of the resulting protein. As a result, the conservative mutation may have minimal or no observable impact on the phenotype or behavior of the organism. |
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Non-conservative mutation |
A non-conservative mutation is a genetic change where one amino acid in a protein is replaced by another with different chemical properties, potentially altering the protein's structure and function, leading to observable effects in the organism. |
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A silent mutation |
A silent mutation is a genetic change that doesn't alter the amino acid sequence of the protein, thus having no observable effect on the organism's phenotype. |
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When you call, transition in Genetic Mutation. |
If A purine is switched to another purine OR a pyramidine is switched to pyramidine |
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Use of ethidium bromide interpolation to DNA |
Ethidium bromide staining allows scientists to visualize the bands of DNA within a gel, aiding in the identification and analysis of DNA molecules of interest.. but should be careful as it can be mutagenic (ethidium bromide can also inhibit DNA replication and transcription by blocking the movement of DNA polymerase and RNA polymerase along the DNA strand. ) |
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Osteogenesis imperfecta |
Osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) is a genetic disorder causing fragile bones prone to breaking, due to mutations affecting collagen production. Treatment focuses on managing symptoms and preventing fractures. |
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What's the product of Glycolysis |
2 pyruvate +2ATP+ 2 NADH |
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Products of TcA cycle |
3NADH+2CO2+1GTP(ATP)+2FADH2 for every Acetyl-COA . |
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3 pathway when there's pyruvate.Condition:cycle:first product 3 pathway when there's pyruvate.Condition:cycle:first product |
Aerobic:TCA cycle:Acetyl COA Anaerobic:Cori cycle(lactic acid fermentation):Lactate (Transamination):Cahill cycle:Alanine |
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Input/investment of Glycolysis |
GLUCOSE +2ATP [ 2ADP + 2Pi] +2NAD |
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What's the eqn of Glycolysis |
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What Ez traps Glucose to Glycolysis and begins the pathway |
Hexokinase |
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What prevents Glucose escaping the cell in Glycolysis . What's that form |
Pi group added to it(negative charge). G6P |
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What Inhibits hexokinase in Glycolysis. What kind of inhibitor |
G6P( the one that HexoK catalysed). Allosteric Inhibitor |
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What inhibits PFK ez in glycolysis?What PFK does? What revvs PFK |
Inhibiting InhibitingATP/citrate. InhibitingATP/citrate.(It converts F6P to [F-1,6bP] rate determining irreversible step.)Revving AMP,ADP( both byproducts of ATP metabolism)F2,6bP ( its produced some where in gluconeogenesis) InhibitingATP/citrate.(It converts F6P to [F-1,6bP] rate determining irreversible step.)Revving AMP,ADP( both byproducts of ATP metabolism)F2,6bP ( its produced some where in gluconeogenesis) InhibitingATP/citrate.(It converts F6P to [F-1,6bP] rate determining irreversible step.)Revving AMP,ADP( both byproducts of ATP metabolism)F2,6bP ( its produced some where in gluconeogenesis) InhibitingATP/citrate.(It converts F6P to [F-1,6bP] rate determining irreversible step.)Revving AMP,ADP( both byproducts of ATP metabolism)F2,6bP ( its produced some where in gluconeogenesis) InhibitingATP/citrate.(It converts F6P to [F-1,6bP] rate determining irreversible step.)Revving AMP,ADP( both byproducts of ATP metabolism)F2,6bP ( its produced some where in gluconeogenesis) (It converts F6P to [F-1,6bP] rate determining irreversible step.)Revving AMP,ADP( both byproducts of ATP metabolism)F2,6bP ( its produced some where in gluconeogenesis) |
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In ABO.What are the alleles,Which one is dominant, which one is codominant ? In ABO.What are the alleles,Which one is dominant, which one is codominant ? In ABO.What are the alleles,Which one is dominant, which one is codominant ? |
A,B,O are alleles.A and B is dominant over O., and Codominant when together. A,B,O are alleles.A and B is dominant over O., and Codominant when together. |
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Penetrance |
Penetrance refers to the proportion of individuals carrying a particular genetic variant or mutation who actually express the associated trait or condition. It describes the likelihood that a specific genotype will result in the observable phenotype. High penetrance means that most individuals with the genetic variant will exhibit the trait, while low penetrance indicates that only a small percentage of carriers will display the trait. |
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Variable expressivity |
Variable expressivity refers to the phenomenon where individuals with the same genetic mutation or variant exhibit different degrees or types of phenotypic traits or manifestations of a particular condition. In other words, although individuals may have the same underlying genetic mutation, the severity or presentation of the associated traits can vary widely among affected individuals. This variation in expressivity can be influenced by factors such as genetic modifiers, environmental factors, and stochastic events during development. |
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Disruptive,stabilizing,directional selection |
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Allopatric speciation |
Allopatric speciation is a process where a new species arises due to geographical isolation, preventing gene flow between populations. Over time, genetic differences accumulate through mutation, genetic drift, and natural selection, leading to reproductive isolation and the formation of distinct species. |
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Who coined the term Nucleic acid? And what was the cell type he is working on? |
Friedric Meischer.Lymphocytes |
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Who identified Nucleus as holder of genetics by studying cell division , also who found its DNA by studying bacteria. What he did to bacteria there |
Wilhelm Roux Frederick Griffith=>heat killed bacteria transformed the other, says its DNA(protein denatures) |
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Chargaffs rule |
A=T G=C |
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Primer igniting notes[pin📌] on Hershey-Chase experiment |
📌 DNA is the material. Worked on Bacteriophage. Radioactive S-35 🏷 P. Radioactive P-32 🏷 DNA. 1952. Note: Watson&Crick paper on 1953 |
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What decides the gender? Why |
Male sperm.B/c it has Y xsome, which has SRY gene, which codes for development of Testes. If not female. Male sperm.B/c it has Y xsome, which has SRY gene, which codes for development of Testes. If not female. |
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Why is colorblindness prevalent in male alone? Give one more example |
It's sexlinked recessive . Think from there. Hemophilia(blood clotting factor deficiency) |
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When do you multiply or Add I probability |
Probability is multiplied when events are independent, meaning the occurrence of one event does not affect the occurrence of another event. This is known as the multiplication rule of probability. Probability is added when events are mutually exclusive, meaning they cannot occur simultaneously. This is known as the addition rule of probability. In summary:- Multiplication: Independent events- Addition: Mutually exclusive events |
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What's site of crossing over called? What's the pairing and forming if physical conenction of Chromosomes called? What's the formed complex called? What are Chromosomes called at this point? |
Chiasma. Synapsis Synaptonemal complex. Tetrad |
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What's site of crossing over called? What's the pairing and forming if physical conenction of Chromosomes called? What's the formed complex called? What are Chromosomes called at this point? |
Chiasma. Synapsis Synaptonemal complex. Tetrad |
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Closer the genes are ____likely the recombination of those genes |
Less |
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What's 1 centimorgan and it's unit |
A centimorgan (cM) measures genetic distance on a chromosome, representing a 1% chance of recombination between two loci during one round of meiosis. |
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How much mitochondrial genes, and Chloroplastal Dna, approximately |
MtCh=>37- mostly for cellular respiration. replicate independent of Nucleus CpDNa=> 100,codes mostly for photosynthesis |
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What organs/cell types use only Glucose as energy source |
Glucose is the only energy source used by the brain (with the exception of ketone bodies during times of fasting), testes, erythrocytes, and kidney medulla. |
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Where does gluconeogenesis occur |
In mammals this process occurs in the liver and kidneys. |
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What's Acetyl |
Acetyl: CH3CO-, a two-carbon compound derived from acetic acid, commonly found in metabolic pathways. |
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How many products come put of Glycolysis of one Glucose include the expense. |
Game of 2 2 Pyruvate 2 NADH + [H+] 2 H20 2 ATP. |
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Does pyruvate from Glycolysis diffuse in to mitochondria. Why? |
No. It needs a transport P.Because it have a charged end, (carboxylic) No. It needs a transport P.Because it have a charged end, (carboxylic) |
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Products of Pyruvate oxidation per Glucose; what's the Ez. It's location |
There is 2 pyruvate, so everything x2.2 x CO2 2 x NADH +[H+] There is 2 pyruvate, so everything x2.2 x CO2 2 x NADH +[H+]2× AcetylCOA. Ez: pyruvate Dehydrogenase.Location prok: cytosolEuk: mtch 2× AcetylCOA. Ez: pyruvate Dehydrogenase. Location prok: cytosol Euk: mtch matrix |
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Product of Krebs cycle,for each for one Glucose => note:2 AcetylCOA Location |
4CO2. 6NADH + [H+]. 2 FADH2. 2 ATP(GTP) MtCH matrix(cytosol) |
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Where does Gluconeogenesis occurs in mammals |
Liver and Kidney |
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How is the trend of Molecular clock of Evolution . It's application |
It tends to be linear, b/c neutral mutations generally increases with time.It helps to measure features of evolutionary time. Species diverged less recently from a common ancestor have accumulated more genetic mutation and less genetically similar to one another (related) than the species more recently diverged. It tends to be linear, b/c neutral mutations generally increases with time.It helps to measure features of evolutionary time. Species diverged less recently from a common ancestor have accumulated more genetic mutation and less genetically similar to one another (related) than the species more recently diverged. |
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What are some common Residues, that can enable phophorylation.? Why |
Ser,Thr,Tyr. Because of the presence of Hydroxyl group. |
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Fecundity and Fitness |
Fecundity: Quantity of offspring produced per reproductive event.Fitness: Measure of reproductive success and survival, contributing to genetic contribution to future generations. |
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Alternative Selection to NS that drives evolution |
Group selection Artificial Selection |
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Genetic drift: "Drifting" |
Genetic drift: Random fluctuations in allele frequencies within a population, leading to changes in gene pool composition over time, particularly in small populations. |
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What are 2 sub categories of Genetic Drift |
Yes, there are two main subcategories of genetic drift:1. **Founder Effect:** Occurs when a small group of individuals establishes a new population in a new area, leading to a loss of genetic variation compared to the original population due to the limited gene pool of the founders.2. **Bottleneck Effect:** Occurs when a population undergoes a drastic reduction in size, leading to a significant loss of genetic diversity due to the limited number of individuals surviving the bottleneck event. |
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Why is Autosomal recessive disorder like Tay-Sachs, problematic in inbreeding. |
Since it's recessive, chances of carriers producing offspring is high, increasing the frequency of people with the disease. In other words,In inbreeding, autosomal recessive disorders like Tay-Sachs pose a higher risk due to increased mating between carriers, limited genetic diversity, and elevated prevalence of harmful alleles, leading to a greater likelihood of affected offspring. |
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4 Reproductive Isolation,that are prezygotic. " speciation " |
1. Habitat/Temporal 2. Behavioral Isolation 3. Mechanical isolation ( different tool) 4. Gametic Isolation |
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3 post-zygotic Isolation |
1.Hybrid Sterility 2. Hybrid Inviability 3. Zygote Mortality |
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What's std reduction potential |
Standard reduction potential (E°) measures a species' tendency to undergo reduction under standard conditions, indicating its strength as an oxidizing or reducing agent. |
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In standard reduction potential, More_____ the potential is better the reducing it is. |
-ve( study this) |
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In standard reduction potential, More_____ the potential is better the reducing it is. |
-ve( study this) |
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Unit of ◇G |
Joules/mole |
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DeltA G eqn |
dG= dH - TdS |
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What are some situations where dG is +ve or -ve |
When both the change in ,H and S is +ve Or when both are -ve |
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Heat vs Temperature |
Heat is the transfer of energy between two bodies due to a temperature difference, while temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in a substance. |
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What's the bond in AtP that breaks to release energy |
Phosphoanhydride bond b/w gamma and beta phosphate |
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What's the bond in AtP that breaks to release energy |
Phosphoanhydride bond b/w gamma and beta phosphate |
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What is losing hydrogen synonymous to in a reaction? What's oxidizing agent, and what's reducing agent? |
Synonymous to losing electron. OA=> get reduced. RA=> get oxidised. |
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What is losing hydrogen synonymous to in a reaction? What's oxidizing agent, and what's reducing agent? |
Synonymous to losing electron. OA=> get reduced. RA=> get oxidised. |
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Flow of e- in wired Zn=>Cu2+ produces light energy. Similarly explain "light" up of ATP💡 in cell. |
Flow of e- from Glucose => O2 ,through the wires of ETC makes ATP |
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Why don't we just combust Glucose to harvest energy? |
Uncontrollable. Lots of waste .needs High Activation energy body can't handle. |
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Which complex of ETC doesn't directly pumps H+ ,in ETC? |
Complex II- but promotes the pumping III AND IV |
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How many electrons does one NADH hand in at EtC |
2 |
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2 characteristics of redox centers in ETC |
Low affinity and High affinity ends.Adjacent points of the center are ideal for electron Jump. Low affinity and High affinity ends.Adjacent points of the center are ideal for electron Jump. |
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Where does final redox center of Complex I, tranfer the electrons to |
CoEz- Q |
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Where does Complex II get the e- from |
FADH2 |
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Where does Complex II get the e- from |
FADH2 |
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Where does electrons go from Complex-II, does it pumps H+ with energy released in electron transfer. What's the other name for this complex |
Goes to CoEz Q(Ubiquinone). No H+ transported. Succinate Dehydrogenase. |
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Mention Q's , accept/donations. In ETC |
Gets e- from Complex-I and II and donates it to complex III |
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Where does ETc ends,. What happens here. What's the other name for it
|
In Complex IV, Four electrons brought by cytochrome C converts a molecule of Oxygen to two molecules of water. This complex aka Cytochrome C oxidase. |
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2 fn groups in Hexose? |
Aldehyde and multiple Alcohols |
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What's D sugar? How do you recognize it? |
Dextro sugar, a type of sugar In Fischer projection, hydroxyl on the highest numbered chiral carbon is on right!. What's R and S? |
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Define diastereomers,enantiomers and epimers, in simple concise terms |
Different at, All chiral center=> enantiomer Some but not all=>diastereomers Just one => epimer (a diastereomer) |
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Example of epimers in sugar |
Galactose and Glucose |
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Example of epimers in sugar |
Galactose and Glucose |
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All sugar structure understanding |
Glucose=> middle finger (all else OH to the side)thumb CHO, down CH2OH.
Galactose=> (C4 epimer) rap => 2 fingers in middle out ✌️ .
Mannose=> Gun( diastereomers of glucose)
Fructose =>
Allose=> all right (OH) Fructose => index finger of close is carbonyl ,then Ch2OH(on both ends).
D - Ribose => 5 C . CHO [-all OH on right-] CH2OH. |
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How many stereoisomers, how many D in it ,how many L and diastereomers |
2^n => so for sugar it's 16.8 L and 8 D8 D diastereomers, and same for L 2^n => so for sugar it's 16.8 L and 8 D8 D diastereomers, and same for L 2^n => so for sugar it's 16.8 L and 8 D8 D diastereomers, and same for L |
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What two atoms forms bond in cyclic sugar. |
Carbonyl of C1, and oxygen atom on C5. |
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What is mutarotation |
Mutarotation is the spontaneous interconversion between different anomers of a sugar in solution, typically between α and β forms. |
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Difference b/w acetal and hemiacetal |
hemiacetal contains one -OH and one -OR group while acetal contains two -OR groups. |
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What are sugars reducing agent |
Sugar can act as a reducing agent because it contains aldehyde or ketone functional groups, which are capable of donating electrons to another chemical species, thereby causing a reduction reaction. In the process, the sugar itself gets oxidized. |
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What's sugars of lactose and linkage |
Galactose-Glucose Beta,1,4-glycosidic |
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Maltose , and it's linkageAlso, Sucrose.Which one is reducing and non reducing. Why Maltose , and it's linkageAlso, Sucrose.Which one is reducing and non reducing. Why Which one is reducing and non reducing. Why |
2 Glucose Alpha,1,4 Glucose + Fructose (linked by anomeric carbon) Sucrose is non reducing because there is no hemi acetal , where as Maltose is one acetal and other hemiacetal. |
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Sugar without ______ is non reducing |
Hemiacetal.
( acetals are locked unlike hemiacetal-- hemiacetals have free OH , to get reduced at the anomeric carbon) |
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What's the connection b/w sugars in cellulose |
Beta 1,4 (humans have Ez only for Alpha 1,4) |
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What's starch , what are compositions. What are the linkages in each. What is dextrin |
Mixture of amylose(10-30%) and amylopectin (70%-90%). Amylose- alpha,1,4 glucose. Amylopectin- same link, but occasional A-1,6(branching). Dextrin is more hydrolyzed form of starch. Starch>>Dextrin>>Maltose>>Glucose |
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Why can't human digest cellulose but starch? |
B/c of B-1,4 link. No Ez to break it and digest. |
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What's amylopectin similar to in animal. What's the similarity |
Glycogen, Branching |
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What are Tautomers, give a common example |
Tautomers are a specific type of constitutional isomers. They are compounds that can interconvert by the relocation of a hydrogen atom and a double bond. This rearrangement results in different connectivity between atoms but retains the same molecular formula. Tautomers often exist in equilibrium with each other and can be interconverted under appropriate conditions. A common example is the keto-enol tautomerism, where a ketone (keto form) can convert to an enol (enol form) through the transfer of a hydrogen atom and the rearrangement of double bonds. |
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What is Pentose Phosphate Pathway for ? |
To produce sugar(Ribose) for RNA and DNA. And reduce NADP. ATP is used |
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Start point of PPP |
G6P |
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What are 2 phases of PPP |
1. OXIDATIVE PHASE 2.non oxidative phase |
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What happens in Oxidative phase of PPP |
G6P oxidised=> Lactone(6PGL) (NADPH is formed here, you know) a useful coin. Now Lactone => 6-Phosphogluconate.(+water). 6 phosphogluconate=> Ribulose-5-p (NaDPH is formed here as well) release C02. |
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Non.Oxidative phase of PpP.Does ATP used or produced in PPP Non.Oxidative phase of PpP.Does ATP used or produced in PPP |
No ATP used /produced |
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Non.Oxidative phase of PpP.Does ATP used or produced in PPP Non.Oxidative phase of PpP.Does ATP used or produced in PPP |
No ATP used /produced |
|
Rate limiting step of PPP |
G6P=> Lactone[6phosphogluconolactone] ( G6PDH) |
|
Why Nonoxidative PPP is all in all or cells activities |
The easy reversibility of the non-oxidative arm enables a dynamic equilibrium between the intermediates, where metabolic needs can be met largely by mass-action balance into various interconnected metabolic pathways based on substrate amounts. |
|
What's the intermediate used as precursor of Amino acid ,in PPP |
Ribose5P=>converted to erythrose-4-phosphate, which are utilized in the biosynthesis of aromatic amino acids like phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan. |
|
Where does PPP occur |
Cytosol |
|
Where does PPP occur |
Cytosol |
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What Ez convert Ribulose-5-p to Ribose-5-P |
Phosphopentose Isomerase |
|
Uses of loaded NADP, NADPH |
helps to build molecules as well as reload antioxidants with electrons to shoot 🔫 reactive oxygen species. |
|
How much ATP is produced per Glucose |
29-30 |
|
Products of Glycolysis |
2 ATP(net)+ 2 NADH + 2pyruvate |
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In the absence of Oxygen, where does Pyruvate go, so that some ATP is produced and why |
To become Lactic acid(Lactic acid fermentation) This regenerates NAD+, which is essential for producing AtP In glycolysis . To become Lactic acid(Lactic acid fermentation) This regenerates NAD+, which is essential for producing AtP In glycolysis . |
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How much NaDH and Fadh2 ,does glycolysis and Krebs cycle makes |
NADH Glycolysis=> 2 Pyruvate oxidation x 2=>2 krebs cycle ×2=> 4. FADH2 Glycolysis=> 0 Pyruvate oxidation x 2=>0 krebs cycle ×2=> 2.
|
|
What's Gluconeogenesis |
Producing Glucose from non-carbH source. |
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Gluconeogenesis is almost Like reverse of Glycolysis, except ---? What are they |
3 unique pathways (includes the bypassing of irreversible pathways of Glycolysis,) 1. Pyruvate =>i) Oxaloacetate =>ii)PEP [i : pyruvate carboxylase +ATP][ii : PEP carboxykinase+GTP] 2. Fructose-1,6 bisphosphate => Fructose-6- phosphate( Fructose-1,6 bisphosphatase). 3. G6P=>Glucose (G6Phosphatase) |
|
Kinase and Phosphatase |
Kinase add Pi Phopshatase remove Pi |
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What's the Enzyme that works both in gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis |
Glucose 6 phosphatase |
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Glycolysis regulation |
1. Glucose high, more pyruvate production.2. Atp allosteric regulator . Lots Glungen is favored.3. Glucagon/insulin4.transcriptional Transcription is slower ,allosteric faster , hormones intermediate 1. Glucose high, more pyruvate production.2. Atp allosteric regulator . Lots Glungen is favored.3. Glucagon/insulin4.transcriptional Transcription is slower ,allosteric faster , hormones intermediate 1. Glucose high, more pyruvate production.2. Atp allosteric regulator . Lots Glungen is favored.3. Glucagon/insulin4.transcriptional Transcription is slower ,allosteric faster , hormones intermediate 1. Glucose high, more pyruvate production.2. Atp allosteric regulator . Lots Glungen is favored.3. Glucagon/insulin4.transcriptional Transcription is slower ,allosteric faster , hormones intermediate 1. Glucose high, more pyruvate production.2. Atp allosteric regulator . Lots Glungen is favored.3. Glucagon/insulin4.transcriptional Transcription is slower ,allosteric faster , hormones intermediate |
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What's the simple description of main function of TCA cycle, stating the first product |
Capturing energy from AcetylCOA into the form of high energy molecule(NADH,FADH2) that will carry electrons to ETC. One GTP/ATP is alsp produced in a cycle. |
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How much ATP is made from One NADH, and how much from one FADH2 |
NADH=> 2 to 3 FADH2=>1 to 2 |
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Location of TCA cycle |
MtCh- matrix |
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What's the Ez that converts, Glycolysis end product to TCA cycle start product. What is it called, whats produced in this . |
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase, Pyruvate(3C)=>AcetylCOA (2C) Pyruvate oxidation. NADH and CO2 |
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What's the product that is regenerated at the end of the Krebs cycle. |
Oxaloacetate |
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What's the Ez that convert Pyruvate to Oxaloacetate straight, when and why do body chose this pathway |
Pyruvate carboxylase Gluconeogenesis. When blood glucose level is super low. |
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Tca products and flow- overview 📸. How many steps in the cycle |
8 |
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What Ez forms Citric acid from what |
Ez : Citrate Synthase. AcetylCOA +Oxaloacetate |
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What's next from citric acid in TCA cycle |
Rearrangement Citrate =>Isocitrate Aconitase |
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What's the step that is rate limiting also produces first NADH in TCA cycle |
Isocitrate => A-K-Glutarate Oxidised , CO2 leaves NADH is formed Done By isocitrate dehydrogenase |
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What happens to A-K-Glutarate in TCA cycle. Mention Carbon number, gains,Ez |
5C AKG is converted to 4C Succinyl-CoA, by AKG dehydrogenase. NADH is formed. |
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When is GTP formed in TCA. Steps |
When Succinyl-CoA is switched to Succinate by Succinyl-CoA synthetase |
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Step in which FADH2 is made in TCA cycle |
Succinate => Fumarate By Succinate Dehydrogenase. Dehydrogenase is there when naDh or fadh is made. No reduction in carbon number in this step |
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What does the cycle do with Fumarate |
Adds water and converts it to Malate. Done by Fumarase |
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What's the final step of TCA cycle |
Malate is oxidized to Oxaloacetate. Forms NADH. Done by Malate Dehydrogenase. |
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When does 2 C of AcetylCOA leaves in the TCA cycle. |
When A-K-Glutarate formed from Isocitrate and also when it is converted to succinyl-CoA |
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So Glucose has 6 carbon. It's oxidised to carbon dioxide. What are those steps where these Carbon leaves( C x 6) |
1 each in Pyruvate to AcetylCOA =2 2 each in cycle (IC=>AKG=SCOA)=4 Total 6 |
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How does all food we end up in the cycle? |
If sugar, Glucose =>pyruvate=>cycle. If Protein=> AcetylCOA or enter as any other intermediate. Fat=> AcetylCOA |
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When ATP is high, wheredoes Acetyl Coa it goes to?! |
Fatty acid synthesis (Not to cycle, as we have enoughATP) |
|
How is AcetylCOA production from Glucose regulated |
Allosteric regulation of Pyruvate Dehydrogenase. Activators: AMP,NAD+,CoA,Pyruvate,Ca2+(excercise). Inhibitors: ACOa,NADH,ATP, fatty acids. |
|
Is there hormonal ctrl of TCA cycle |
NO. |
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3 spots of TCA cycle regulation and their inhibitors and activators |
3 Ez,are allosterically regulated 1. Citrate Synthase (inhibitors:NADH,ATP,citrate) (Activator: ADP 2.Isocitrate Dehydrogenase (inhibitors:NADH,ATP) (Activator: ADP,Ca2+) 3. A-K-Glutarate Dehydrogenase (inhibitor:NADH,succinyl-CoA,) (Activator: Ca2+) |
|
What's the relationship between noncompetitive and uncompetitive inhibitio |
uncompetitive inhibition is a subcategory of noncompetitive inhibition. Both noncompetitive and uncompetitive inhibition involve the binding of an inhibitor to the enzyme, but they differ in the specific sites of binding and their effects on enzyme kinetics. Uncompetitive inhibition is a subtype of noncompetitive inhibition where the inhibitor binds only to the enzyme-substrate complex, while in general noncompetitive inhibition, the inhibitor can bind to either the enzyme or the enzyme-substrate complex. |
|
How does ruminants digest cellulose |
It's stomach house a bacteria that can breakdown cellulose |
|
In Genetics, what's the term used, if all of all the individuals showed the phenotype associated with the genotype, but shows it slightly different than others. And what's the term used when the term associated with certain percentage of population not expressing the phenotype corresponding to a genotype at all. |
Variable expressivity. Penetrance (incomplete, or less than 100%) |
|
What does Mesoderm gives rise to |
KUMB |
|
Endoderm give rise to |
Lining of internal organs |
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Ectoderm develops into |
Nervous system,eyes,ear,Hair, Nail, (Note:Ecto means Outer) |
|
What are two hormones that are elevated, when person has low blood glucose |
Glucagon(stimulates Glycogenolysis),and Cortisol (stimulates Gluconeogenesis) |
|
What decreases blood calcium levels. |
Calcitonin |
|
What increases plasma calcium level |
PTH and Calcitriol |
|
When does cross over occur in meiosis |
Prophase-I |
|
Founder effect |
The founder effect is a phenomenon in genetics where a small group of individuals from a larger population establish a new population, leading to reduced genetic diversity compared to the original population. This can result in certain genetic traits becoming more common in the new population due to chance. |
|
Pleitropy |
Pleiotropy is a genetic phenomenon where a single gene influences multiple traits or characteristics. In other words, a mutation in one gene can lead to various effects on an organism's phenotype, often seemingly unrelated. This concept highlights the interconnectedness of genes and their effects on an organism's overall phenotype. |
|
What creates antibodies to Rh factor, Rh- or Rh+. |
Rh- |
|
In cellular respiration, Everything except ____ happens in MTCH |
Glycolysis (cytoplasm) |
|
2 main steps of Oxidative phosphorylation |
Oxidation of NADH/FADH2 Phosphorylation by Atpase |
|
Where does NADH donates its electron first to? What's the Ez name |
Complex 1, NADH dehydrogenase. |
|
Where does FADH2 gives its electrons to ? |
COMPLEX 2/ SUCCINATE DEHYDROGENASE |
|
When Succinate get oxidised to Fumarate. What is getting reduced, what's the Enzymes. Where else the Ez plays a role. |
Reduce , FAD to FADH2 ( which reduce Q to QH2).In Compex 2, of ETC Reduce , FAD to FADH2 ( which reduce Q to QH2).In Compex 2, of ETC |
|
What's the only membrane bound Ez of Krebs cycle |
Succinate Dehydrogenase |
|
Describe the role of an only membrane bound Ez of Krebs cycle ,with ETC |
Complex II (succinate dehydrogenase) in the electron transport chain reduces FAD to FADH2 during the conversion of succinate to fumarate in the Krebs cycle. Then, FADH2 donates its electrons to ubiquinone (Q), converting it to ubiquinol (QH2) within the electron transport chain. |
|
Ez that pumps proton on ETC |
Cx,1,3,4 . All except Cx2 |
|
Where does Q gets electrons from and where does it deliver |
From NADH through Complex 1 and from FADH2 through Complex 2.These electrons are then delivered to Complex3 or ( cytochrom bc1 complex). From NADH through Complex 1 and from FADH2 through Complex 2.These electrons are then delivered to Complex3 or ( cytochrom bc1 complex). |
|
Where does electron goes from Complex 3 and what happens then |
It goes to Cytochrome C, which then pass it to complex 4 ( cyctochrome C oxidase) |
|
What's Complex 4 of ETC |
Cytochrome C oxidase. |
|
What's complex 3 ,In etc? |
Cyctochrome bc1 complex |
|
How much QH2 one FADH2 produce, and how about one NADH.How does it corresponds to electrons. How much QH2 one FADH2 produce, and how about one NADH.How does it corresponds to electrons.And the electrons to H+, and then ATP. And the electrons to H+, and then ATP. |
1. one FADH2 molecule typically generates enough energy to produce approximately 1 to 2 molecules of ubiquinol (QH2), corresponding to 2 to 4 electrons in total.. 2 One NADH molecule donates two electrons to the electron transport chain. As a result, one NADH molecule typically generates enough energy to produce approximately 1.5 to 2.5 molecules of ubiquinol (QH2), corresponding to 3 to 5 electrons in total.. For NADH:Each NADH molecule generally contributes enough energy to pump approximately 10 protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane.This proton gradient typically generates enough energy to produce about 2.5 to 3 ATP molecules through the process of oxidative phosphorylation.For FADH2:Each FADH2 molecule generally contributes enough energy to pump approximately 6 protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane.This proton gradient typically generates enough energy to produce about 1.5 to 2 ATP molecules through oxidative phosphorylation. |
|
What happens to electrons in Cx 3 of ETC |
e- are picked up by cyctochrome C, causing Cx 3 to pump Proton. CYT-C tranfers this electron to Cx-4 |
|
Where do electrons come from, to reduce Oxygen to water in ETC. The last stop of e- |
Cx- 4 |
|
If there is no oxygen in cell, Oxidative phosphorylation doesn't take place? What does cell do with the glucose |
Lactic acid fermentation(regenerati g NAd+), so the Glycolysis repeats and produce 2 net AtP. |
|
How much atp does, each NaDh and Fadh2 makes, ideally. |
NADH=> 2 to 3 ATP FADH2=> 1 to 2 ATP |
|
Brief picture, h+ is pumped across mtch memb, which creates a battery like pressure which then flow down to make AtP. Where does the energy comes from, to pump this proton, Ultimately? |
During cellular respiration, the oxidation reactions of fuel molecules, such as glucose or fatty acids, liberate energy. This energy is captured by electron carriers like NADH and FADH2. As these carriers shuttle electrons along the electron transport chain embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane, the energy released( as it shuttle down) is utilized to pump protons across the membrane. |
|
Whats the word for passage of H+ through AtP synthase,producing AtP |
Chemiosmosis |
|
Whats the phosphorylation of ADP, apart from Chemiosmosis called |
Substrate level phosphorylation |
|
What's the main regulator of ETC |
Level of ATP/ADP( also level of NADH from previous pathways or NAD+ but not as much role atp). No hormones/allosteric regulator (previous pathways have them) |
|
What's Necrosis |
Uncontrolled cell death. .its caused by irreversible damage, often due to injury, toxins, or lack of blood supply, leading to inflammation and tissue damage. No Ez generally required |
|
What's the Ez for controlled cell death(Apoptosis) |
Capsase (family of protease enzymes) |
|
What are some uses of Apoptosis |
- Embryonic devpt. Eg: Hands digits formation- DNA damaged cell(unrepairable).- infected cell (virus).- Environmental stress.Detachment, deprivation or lack of signal reception(GH)- Reactive Oxygen Species: O-, •OH, H2O2. : if their damage is beyond the protection teams, cell goes apoptosis |
|
What organelle does Apoptosis, what are the steps. |
Mitochondria. Cellular stress triggers activation of pro-apoptotic proteins (e.g., Bax/Bak)=>Activated Bax/Bak form pores in outer mitochondrial membrane=>.Release of pro-apoptotic proteins like cytochrome c into cytosol=>.Cytochrome c binds Apaf-1, forming apoptosome=>.Apoptosome activates caspase cascade(including activation of Nucleases) |
|
What regulates apoptosis |
Bcl-2 family of Proteins(regulates memb-permeability) 2 types Pro-apoptotic P. And Anti-aptotic P. |
|
Show the pumping of H+ per 2e- which is transferred either by NADH/FADH2. How much H+ flow is required per ATP. So what's the final NADH/FADH2 per ATP |
Per 2e- => - CX-1 Pumps 4H+- CX-3 Pumps 4H+- CX-4 pumps 2H+.
4H+ per ATP.
1 NADH 2.5ATP 1 FADH2 1.5 ATP. Total, 30-32 ATP per Glucose |
|
What's Genetic imprinting |
Genomic imprinting involves the addition of chemical tags, such as methyl groups, to specific regions of DNA during gamete formation. These tags can affect gene expression by silencing one copy of the gene, either from the mother or the father, while allowing the other copy to be expressed. As a result, the expression of imprinted genes is monoallelic, meaning only one allele (either from the mother or the father) is active, while the other allele is inactive due to the imprinting process. |
|
Distinguish between Chromatin,chromatid,chromosome I'm simple single sentence |
Chromatin is the relaxed form of DNA, chromatids are the replicated strands of DNA joined by a centromere, and chromosomes are condensed structures formed from chromatids during cell division. |
|
TERPENES |
Terpenes are organic compounds found in plants that contribute to their scent and flavor. They serve as the building blocks for steroid hormones, which are essential for various biological functions including metabolism, immune response, and reproduction.. |
|
How many 6 membered ring and 5 membered ring in steroids. |
3 - 6💍 1-5💍 : 2BHK |
|
Simplest class of sphingolipids |
Ceramide ( H=> fn group)) |
|
What's 6 in omega 6 |
6th bond is double bond, counting from methyl end |
|
How many cycle of beta oxidation for complete digestion of stearic acid |
8 |
|
Name some ketone bodies. Used for energy |
Acetoacetate Beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) Acetone |
|
Which organn cannot utilize ketone bodies but produces them by ketogenesis |
Liver |
|
Which organn cannot utilize ketone bodies but produces them by ketogenesis |
Liver |
|
Site of fatty acid, Synthesis and Breakdown(beta oxidation) |
Cytoplasm and Mitochondria (inner mitochondrial memb) |
|
Site of fatty acid, Synthesis and Breakdown(beta oxidation) |
Cytoplasm and Mitochondria(also,ER(alpha and beta) and peroxisome(omega) |
|
What's AcetylCOA converted to ,so that it can be shuttled to cytoplasm for FA synthesis |
Citrate |
|
What's AcetylCOA converted to ,so that it can be shuttled to cytoplasm for FA synthesis |
Citrate |
|
Alcohol fermentation steps |
Decarboxylation: Pyruvate is converted into acetaldehyde by the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase.Reduction: Acetaldehyde is then reduced to ethanol by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase.(NAD+ is regenerated here by getting NADH oxidized)Decarboxylation: Pyruvate is converted into acetaldehyde by the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase.Reduction: Acetaldehyde is then reduced to ethanol by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase.(NAD+ is regenerated here by getting NADH oxidized).Note : CO2 is released in first step . Which is not present in lactic acid fermentation. Decarboxylation: Pyruvate is converted into acetaldehyde by the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase.Reduction: Acetaldehyde is then reduced to ethanol by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase.(NAD+ is regenerated here by getting NADH oxidized)Decarboxylation: Pyruvate is converted into acetaldehyde by the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase.Reduction: Acetaldehyde is then reduced to ethanol by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase.(NAD+ is regenerated here by getting NADH oxidized).Note : CO2 is released in first step . Which is not present in lactic acid fermentation. Decarboxylation: Pyruvate is converted into acetaldehyde by the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase.Reduction: Acetaldehyde is then reduced to ethanol by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase.(NAD+ is regenerated here by getting NADH oxidized)Decarboxylation: Pyruvate is converted into acetaldehyde by the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase.Reduction: Acetaldehyde is then reduced to ethanol by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase.(NAD+ is regenerated here by getting NADH oxidized).Note : CO2 is released in first step . Which is not present in lactic acid fermentation. Decarboxylation: Pyruvate is converted into acetaldehyde by the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase.Reduction: Acetaldehyde is then reduced to ethanol by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase.(NAD+ is regenerated here by getting NADH oxidized)Decarboxylation: Pyruvate is converted into acetaldehyde by the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase.Reduction: Acetaldehyde is then reduced to ethanol by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase.(NAD+ is regenerated here by getting NADH oxidized).Note : CO2 is released in first step . Which is not present in lactic acid fermentation. |
|
Why Cori cycle.? |
The Cori cycle allows lactate, produced as a byproduct of anaerobic metabolism in skeletal muscle, to be recycled and used as a substrate for glucose synthesis in the liver. This process helps maintain blood glucose levels and provides an alternative energy source for tissues during periods of high energy demand or low oxygen availability. |
|
What does Beta cells of Pancreas secrete |
Insulin |
|
Pyruvate kinase regulation . 2 ways of inhibition by AtP |
Pyruvate kinase can be regulated through both allosteric inhibition by ATP and by phosphorylation. The allosteric inhibition occurs when ATP binds directly to pyruvate kinase, while phosphorylation involves the action of a kinase enzyme that adds a phosphate group to pyruvate kinase, reducing its activity. These mechanisms provide dual control over pyruvate kinase activity, allowing for fine-tuning of glycolysis in response to cellular energy needs. |
|
Regulation of PFK-1 |
- Allosteric inhibition by ATP- Activation by AMP and ADP- Inhibition by citrate- pH changes- Activation by fructose-2,6-bisphosphate- Covalent modification through phosphorylation and dephosphorylation |
|
What's the Ez irreversibly commit Glucose to Glycolysis |
PFK-1 |
|
1. When homozygous(AA or aa) cross with heterozygous (Aa). 1. When homozygous(AA or aa) cross with heterozygous (Aa).2. When Aa ×Aa3. When AA ×aa 2. When Aa ×Aa 3. When AA ×aa |
1. It's 50% homozygous (AA or aa) 50% heterozygous . 2.1AA : 2Aa : 1aa 3. All Aa. |
|
What's penetrance in Genetics |
Penetrance refers to the likelihood or degree to which a specific genetic trait or mutation is expressed in individuals who carry the corresponding gene. In simpler terms, it's the chance that if you have a particular gene, you'll actually show the associated trait or characteristic. High penetrance means most people with the gene will show the trait, while low penetrance means only some will exhibit it, or they might show it to a lesser extent. |
|
Name one transcriptional control features found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. |
Promoter repressor. |
|
Tay Sach, issue |
In Tay-Sachs disease, there's a malfunction in the HEXA gene, which encodes the alpha subunit of the enzyme beta-hexosaminidase A (Hex-A). This enzyme is responsible for breaking down a fatty substance called GM2 ganglioside. Without functional Hex-A, GM2 ganglioside accumulates in nerve cells, particularly in the brain, leading to the progressive neurological deterioration characteristic of Tay-Sachs disease. |
|
Inclusion cell disease, |
Inclusion cell disease, or mucolipidosis II, is caused by mutations in the GNPTAB gene, leading to a deficiency of an enzyme involved in protein transport to lysosomes. This results in the abnormal accumulation of substances within lysosomes, causing cellular dysfunction and the characteristic features of the disease. |
|
What's DNA gyrase |
DNA gyrase is a bacterial enzyme that relieves strain in DNA by introducing negative supercoils, aiding in DNA replication and transcription. |
|
What's responsible for movement of microvili and cilia |
Microvilli are moved by microfilaments (actin filaments), while cilia are moved by microtubules. |
|
What's the max hydrogen bond water can form |
4 |
|
What's the difference between Kinetochore and Centromere |
Kinetochores are the macromolecular protein complexes that govern chromosome movement by binding spindle microtubules during mitosis and meiosis. Centromeres are the specific chromosomal regions that serve as the platform on which kinetochores assemble. |
|
What gets pulled apart in Anaphase-I ,of meiosis-I. And what sticks together |
Homologous chromosomes. Sister chromatids. |
|
What's glycogen ? Where is it mostly stored |
Polymer of glucose. Mainly liver and also in muscles. First source in fasting state |
|
How many calories per gram in glycogen/muscles and fats |
4kilocalorie per Gram in glycogen and protein. 9kcal per gram in adipose |
|
Triacylglycerol |
Ester derived from glycerol and 3 fatty |
|
Advantage of fat as energy source |
Hydrophobic(less weight) No other usage Long chains to store lots of energy. |
|
What Ez breaksdown Fat? What secretes it |
Lipases. Pancreas |
|
What helps with Lipase to breakdown fat? And is secreted by? |
Bile. Liver |
|
Where is TAG + other fat molecules packed into in small intestine, to ease their travel through bloodstream.Where does it leave from intestine to travel as capillaries around intestine has smaller fenestration. Where is TAG + other fat molecules packed into in small intestine, to ease their travel through bloodstream.Where does it leave from intestine to travel as capillaries around intestine has smaller fenestration.And where does this takes it to? Finally where does the other organ or tissues absorbs this fat And where does this takes it to? Finally where does the other organ or tissues absorbs this fat |
Chylomicron(lipoP.) Lacteal (lymphatic capillary). Drain To right or left thoracic duct into veins near neck and shoulder. This goes through heart,lungs and get drained to Capillary bed where it is absorbed by other tissues. Lipoprotein Lipase, in the Lipoprotein get activated and breakdown TGA to FAs and glycerol |
|
What tissues or cell doesn't takes up FAT for energy? |
RBC (NO MTCH) and Brain 🧠(bbb) |
|
All macromolecules except ____1, gets into ⇒capillarybed⇒vein, directly to ⇒liver. How does it gets to liver?2. Liver converts extra glucose to FA and where does it packs this into?3 |
1.Fat. 2.Lymphatic vessels. 3.VLDL (also adds chilomicron remnants to this) |
|
What stimulates adipocyte hormone receptor. What travels along with FA in order to ease its journey through aqueous environment. |
Decrease in level of insulin and increase in Glucagon. FA gets released into blood stream. Albumin (made by liver) |
|
Why is liver big consumer of FA released by adipose in fasting |
Liver takes it for energy to perform gluconeogenesis and raise the blood glucose level b/c Rbc or brain doesn't take FAs |
|
What hormone stimulate/inhibit glucose conversion to FA |
Insulin ^ stimulate. Down ,inhibit |
|
Characteristics of Chordata |
Characteristics of Chordata. Animals in the phylum Chordata share five key chacteristics that appear at some stage during their development: a notochord, a dorsal hollow (tubular) nerve cord, pharyngeal gill arches or slits, a post-anal tail, and an endostyle/thyroid gland |
|
All chordates are protostomes?All chordates have vertebrates? All chordates are protostomes?All chordates have vertebrates?True/False True/False True/False |
Both False. |
|
Peripatric,parapatric,allopatric, Sympatric speciation. |
Peripatric (peri = near, patric = place): New species formed from a small population isolated at the edge of a larger population. Parapatric (para = beside, patric = place): New species formed from a continuously distributed population Allopatric (allo = other, patric = place): New species formed from geographically isolated populations. Sympatric (sym = same, patric = place): New species formed from within the range of the ancestral population. |
|
Bacillus species characteristics. |
Bacillus species are rod-shaped, endospore-forming aerobic or facultatively anaerobic, Gram-positive bacteria |
|
Endospores ? |
Endospores are highly resistant structures formed by certain bacteria, allowing them to survive harsh conditions, remain viable for long periods, and serve as reservoirs for replenishment of bacterial populations. They are also resistant to disinfection and can be used as biological weapons. |
|
Conjugation transduction transformation |
|
|
Episomes vs Plasmids |
|
|
Fungus that only reproduce asexually is called |
Deuteromycetes |
|
What's a phase contrast microscope |
A phase-contrast microscope enhances the contrast of transparent specimens, like living cells, by converting differences in light phase into brightness variations, enabling clear visualization without staining. |
|
What's a phase contrast microscope |
A phase-contrast microscope enhances the contrast of transparent specimens, like living cells, by converting differences in light phase into brightness variations, enabling clear visualization without staining. |
|
Parthenogenesis |
Parthenogenesis is a form of reproduction where an egg develops into an offspring without fertilization by sperm, resulting in genetic clones of the mother. It occurs naturally in certain animals, plants, and invertebrates, allowing reproduction without a mate and potentially limiting genetic diversity. |
|
Can virus have both DNA and RNA |
viruses can contain either DNA or RNA as their genetic material, but not both simultaneously |
|
Can virus have both DNA and RNA |
viruses can contain either DNA or RNA as their genetic material, but not both simultaneously |
|
What's capsomers |
Capsomers are protein subunits that compose the capsid of a virus, enclosing its genetic material and aiding in viral entry into host cells. They also contain epitopes that stimulate immune responses, influencing the antigenicity of the virus. |
|
How does lysogenic virus cause tumor |
Lysogenic viruses can cause neoplasms (abnormal growths of tissue, often referred to as tumors) through a process known as viral oncogenesis. In this process, the viral genome integrates into the host cell's DNA during the lysogenic phase, disrupting normal cellular functions and potentially activating oncogenes (genes that promote cell growth and division) or inactivating tumor suppressor genes (genes that inhibit cell growth and division). This disruption can lead to uncontrolled cell proliferation and the formation of neoplasms. Additionally, the expression of viral genes and the production of viral proteins can further contribute to cellular transformation and tumor development. |
|
How is acetyl coa in mitochondria shuttled to cytoplasm for Fatty acid Synthesis |
It's converted to citrate by adding OxAcetate , then it's taken in citrate shuttle.from Cytoplasm it is disassembled. (By ATP- citrate lyase) |
|
How is acetyl coa in mitochondria shuttled to cytoplasm for Fatty acid Synthesis |
It's converted to citrate by adding OxAcetate , then it's taken in citrate shuttle.from Cytoplasm it is disassembled. (By ATP- citrate lyase) This conversion can reduce NADP to NADPH (which powers anabolic rxn including FA Synthesis) It's converted to citrate by adding OxAcetate , then it's taken in citrate shuttle.from Cytoplasm it is disassembled. (By ATP- citrate lyase) This conversion can reduce NADP to NADPH (which powers anabolic rxn including FA Synthesis) |
|
What transports fatty acid Synthesised in liver |
The liver synthesizes VLDL, which transports triglycerides synthesized in the liver to peripheral tissues for energy or storage. VLDL particles are rich in triglycerides and also contain cholesterol and other lipids. |
|
What ez converts acetyl coa to melanoyl coa in FA Synthesis |
Catalyzed by acetyl coa carboxylase. Also Powered by ATP. |
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Beta oxidation. Transport of FA to mtch also? |
C1. Activation: Fatty acids become fatty acyl-CoA- by acyl-CoA synthetase, using ATP 2. Transport: Fatty acyl-CoA enters outer mitochondrial memb. Carnitine attached instead of cOA=> by carnitine acyl transferase-I 3. Translocation: Fatty acylcarnitine moves across inner membrane through ACT transporter.(acyl carnitine translocase) 4. Reconversion: Fatty acylcarnitine reverts to fatty acyl-CoA.,(carnitine acyl transferase-II. (Carnitine goes to cytoplasm for further job- pumped back by ACT) 5. Beta-Oxidation: oxidation of 4 steps : Fatty acyl-CoA undergoes beta-oxidation for energy.(charge up FAD/NAD). Note : Beta oxidation refers to ckeaving the bond (oxidation) b/w alpha and Beta carbon. forming the Acetyl COa , and acyl COA |
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Beta oxidation. Transport of FA to mtch also? |
C1. Activation: Fatty acids become fatty acyl-CoA- by acyl-CoA synthetase, using ATP 2. Transport: Fatty acyl-CoA enters outer mitochondrial memb. Carnitine attached instead of cOA=> by carnitine acyl transferase-I 3. Translocation: Fatty acylcarnitine moves across inner membrane through ACT transporter.(acyl carnitine translocase) 4. Reconversion: Fatty acylcarnitine reverts to fatty acyl-CoA.,(carnitine acyl transferase-II. (Carnitine goes to cytoplasm for further job- pumped back by ACT) 5. Beta-Oxidation: oxidation of 4 steps : Fatty acyl-CoA undergoes beta-oxidation for energy.(charge up FAD/NAD). Note : Beta oxidation refers to ckeaving the bond (oxidation) b/w alpha and Beta carbon. forming the Acetyl COa , and acyl COA |
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What's the first product of FA Synthesis. And what are the regulators of these process |
Acetyl-cOA=>Malonyl-COa(x AcetylCOA)=> palmitic acid
Hormone regulation: insulin+/glucagon -.
Allosteric: citrate +, long chain FA, inhibitor. |
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What is used to reduce c=c in FA Synthesis. And the enzyme? |
NADPH. FA synthase |
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Two ways energy is harnessed in fatty acid oxidation |
1. Breakdown can recharge NAD/FAD.2. Plus, mainly, AcetylCOA(#C÷2) can enter Kreb cycle. 1. Breakdown can recharge NAD/FAD.2. Plus, mainly, AcetylCOA(#C÷2) can enter Kreb cycle. In case of palmitic acid..16carbon1.=> 27ATP2.=>8 ×10 =80 In case of palmitic acid..16carbon 1.=> 27ATP 2.=>8 ×10 =80 |
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Ez for FA Synthesis is in cytoplasm, how about oxidation. |
MTCh |
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Why is it referred beta oxidation |
Beta oxidation refers to ckeaving the bond (oxidation) b/w alpha and Beta carbon. forming the Acetyl COa , and acyl COA |
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Fatty acids |
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Fatty acid oxidation |
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Beta oxidation steps inside matrix |
1. Using FAD(to eat electron) and dehydrogenase, hydrogen is removed from α and β carbon, giving rise to double bond between them. 2. It's then hydratase-ed by adding water , forming hydroxyl group at beta carbon. 3. Another dehydrogenase is employed to oxidise the hydroxy and make a carbonyl at beta carbon. (NAD takes up the e-).. 4. Now, withe the help of β-ketothiolase and addition of HSCoa, cleaves between alpha and beta form the fatty acyl coa with 2 carbon less and another acetyl-COA |
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The rate-limiting enzyme of beta-oxidation is _______ It controls the entry of fatty acyl-CoA into the mitochondria for oxidation. |
carnitine acyltransferase I (CAT-1). It controls the entry of fatty acyl-CoA into the mitochondria for oxidation. |
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What's allosteric inhibitor of FA oxidation |
Malonyl coa |
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Do you use Fatty acid for gluconeogenesis? |
Fatty acids cannot be directly converted into glucose because they are metabolized into acetyl-CoA, which cannot be converted back into the key intermediate, pyruvate, needed for gluconeogenesis. Therefore, fatty acids are not typically used as substrates for gluconeogenesis. Even if it makes Oxaloacetate in cycle no net gain.. But there are some long chain FA products that can invest in glucose production
Proteins,lactate,glycerol are used |
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What else apart from AA, contribute to gluconeogenesis |
Gluconeogenesis: Glycerol enters the gluconeogenesis pathway primarily in the liver. In this process, glycerol is converted into dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), an intermediate of glycolysis, through a series of enzymatic reactions. DHAP can then be converted into glucose, contributing to the maintenance of blood glucose levels. Also lactate (converted to pyruvate) |
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When does P. Degradation takes place in fasting |
P. Degradation occur in first 2 to 3 days of starvation, after that Body switch to Ketosis (AcetylCOA => β-hydroxybutarate, and acetoacetate) P. Degradation rate decreases. |
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When does P. Degradation takes place in fasting |
P. Degradation occur in first 2 to 3 days of starvation, after that Body switch to Ketosis (AcetylCOA => β-hydroxybutarate, and acetoacetate) P. Degradation rate decreases. |
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What can be P. Used for once it gets into Liver |
- It can be used for P. Synthesis- If extra ⇒making Glucose(and stored⇒Glycogen )- And/or Fatty acid(and stored⇒Adipose tissue).- Also send to other tissues/cells for P. Synthesis there (eg:muscle ) |
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What are ketogenic and glucogenic AA |
-Ketogenic⇒if it feed to make precursor for FA(AcetylCOA/acetoacetyl coa) (exclusive: KL) - Glucogenic⇒if it feeds to make precursors for Glucose (by entering as some form of intermediate :- Pyruvate- Ox-acetate- Intermediates of K) |
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What's the main source of energy in fasting state |
In a fasting state, when glucose levels are low and glycogen stores become depleted, the body primarily relies on fat metabolism for energy. Specifically, fatty acids derived from stored triglycerides in adipose tissue become the main source of energy through a process called beta-oxidation. This process breaks down fatty acids into acetyl-CoA molecules, which enter the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) to produce ATP, the body's primary energy currency. Additionally, during fasting, some amino acids derived from protein breakdown can also be converted into glucose via gluconeogenesis to provide energy for tissues that require glucose, such as the brain and red blood cells. However, fatty acid oxidation remains the predominant source of energy during prolonged fasting periods. |
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What's Urea cycle |
The urea cycle is a metabolic pathway that occurs primarily in the liver and plays a crucial role in the removal of toxic ammonia from the body. Ammonia is a byproduct of protein metabolism and can be harmful if it accumulates in the bloodstream. The urea cycle converts ammonia into urea, a less toxic compound that can be excreted in the urine. |
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What the bond in ATP |
Anhydride |
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_______ deflects least in mass spectrometer. Heaviest/lightest |
Heaviest ion |
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How is Unsaturated fatty acid dealt in beta oxidation |
Unsaturated fatty acids in beta-oxidation are isomerized to trans forms, then undergo standard beta-oxidation. Double bonds are reduced by enzymes before continuing the process. |
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Suppose there is two alleles for color and you get 100% different color offspring by crossing two different color parents A&B. What dominance is this And when you self cross this offspring C, what do you get as colour. Suppose there is two alleles for color and you get 100% different color offspring by crossing two different color parents A&B. What dominance is this And when you self cross this offspring C, what do you get as colour. |
Incomplete dominance. 50% same as offspring C.. 25% A , 25% B |
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Suppose there is two alleles for color and you get 100% different color offspring by crossing two different color parents A&B. What dominance is this And when you self cross this offspring C, what do you get as colour. Suppose there is two alleles for color and you get 100% different color offspring by crossing two different color parents A&B. What dominance is this And when you self cross this offspring C, what do you get as colour. |
Incomplete dominance. 50% same as offspring C.. 25% A , 25% B |
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Substanti niagra(Hindbrain/midbrain/forebrain) |
Midbrain |
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Medulla (Hindbrain/midbrain/forebrain) |
Hindbrain- rhombencephalon |
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Temporal lobe (Hindbrain/midbrain/forebrain) |
Forebrain |
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Total ATP generation from one Glucose: Pro vs Euk. Per Krebs. Per PDH Per Glycolysis ** |
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Can CO2 and O2 pass through cell membrane? |
Yes. Easily and fastly |
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By switching the _________ of an ion , you can switch the volt(memb potential)- typically ____ion has high _____, hence membrane potential is closer to its ________ potential. |
permeability. K+, high permeability. Equilibrium |
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By switching the _________ of an ion , you can switch the volt(memb potential)- typically ____ion has high _____, hence membrane potential is closer to its ________ potential. |
permeability. K+, high permeability. Equilibrium |
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Which one has high fluidity ? Sat or unsat |
Unsaturated. Saturated has better stacking |
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Which one has high fluidity ? Sat or unsat |
Unsaturated. Saturated has better stacking |
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2 P. That cause flip and flop. USING aTP |
Flippase and floppase |
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2 P. That cause flip and flop. USING aTP |
Flippase and floppase |
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What's Colligative property |
A colligative property is a property that is dependent on the ratio of solute to solvent concentration but not the identity of the solute/solvent( |
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What's Colligative property |
A colligative property is a property that is dependent on the ratio of solute to solvent concentration but not the identity of the solute/solvent( |
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How to find equilibrium potential |
E = (RT/zF) * Log ([ion]outside/[ion]inside). Approx 60 x log [ionout]/[ionin] |
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Desmosomes vs Tight jn |
while desmosomes contribute to cell-cell adhesion and provide mechanical strength, they do not significantly impede the passage of substances between cells. On the other hand, tight junctions form a tight barrier between cells, regulating the paracellular transport of ions and molecules and preventing the passage of most substances. |
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____ junction allow intercellular passage out of 4 |
Gap Jn |
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How many transmembrane helices does GpCr has |
7 |
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How many transmembrane helices does GpCr has |
7 |
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____ of Gpcr's trimeric protein are attached to cell memb |
Alpha |