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220 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Environment”
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The circumstances, objects, or conditions by which one is surrounded;
The complex of physical, chemical and biotic (living) factors that act upon an organism or ecological community; Aggregate of social and cultural conditions that influence the life of an individual or community. |
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Science”
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possession of knowledge as distinguished from ignorance or misunderstanding;
something that may be studied or learned like systematized knowledge; Knowledge covering general truths or operation of general laws, esp. as obtained and tested through scientific method; such knowledge concerned with the physical world. |
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Environmental Science –
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interdisciplinary in nature; includes consideration of applied & theoretical aspects of interactions (impacts) between humans and their surrounding natural environment…
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Environmentally Sustainable Society”
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Satisfies the basic needs of people for food, clean water, clean air, and shelter into the indefinite future without depleting or degrading the earth’s natural resources thereby preventing current and future generations of humans and other species from meeting their basic needs
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Sustainable Development
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meet the needs of present without compromising ability of future generations to meet their own needs”
BUT ‘ sustainability’ is NOT protection of environment at all costs NOR is it unbridled exploitation of natural resource RATHER, the notion refers to a “balance” between resource availability and use |
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1992 (Rio de Janeiro) – UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED; Rio Summit; Earth Summit); 172 Govts:
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Goals:
(1) Come to understanding of “development” that supported socioeconomic development AND prevented continued environmental deterioration; (2) Lay foundation for global partnership between developing & developed countries to address mutual needs, common interests & healthy planetary future |
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Agenda 21 –
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comprehensive action program for global action in all areas of sustainable development
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Ecosystem:
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Region in which organisms & their physical environment form interacting and self-sustaining unit
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Goal of Environmental Science:
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to recognize & understand natural interactions, and integrate them with human uses of the natural world
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Some international agencies
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(e.g., International Joint Commission – Great Lakes; USA/Canada border;
International Boundary and Water Commission – USA/Mexico border; NAFTA Commission on Environmental Cooperation (CEC) – Canada, Mexico, USA) can have major influence on environmental quality over broad regions |
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Present Day Environmental Realities
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Humans have been very successful in exploiting the Earth’s resources Major changes in Earth’s ecosystems:
half of world’s wetlands were lost during last century; Logging & land use conversion have reduced forest cover between 20-50%; Nearly 70% of world’s major marine fish stocks are over-fished or being fished at biological limit; Soil degradation has affected ~2/3 of world’s agricultural land over last half century (estimated 25,000 million tonnes fertile top soil lost globally [=55 trillion lbs; 55,000,000,000,000 lbs); |
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Present Day Environmental Realities
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Estimated 27,000 species disappear from planet annually (~1 every 20 minutes);
Dams & engineering works have fragmented ~60% of world’s large river systems; Human activities are significantly altering basic chemical cycles upon which all ecosystems depend. |
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Ecosystem Services & Functions:
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Gas regulation; Climate regulation;
Disturbance regulation; Water regulation; Water supply; Erosion control and sediment retention; Soil formation; Nutrient cycling; Waste treatment; Pollination; Biological control; Refugia; Food production; Raw materials; Genetic resources; Recreational opportunities; Cultural benefits |
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Man is both creature and moulder of his environment, which gives him physical sustenance and afford him the opportunity for intellectual, moral, social and spiritual growth. In the long and torturous evolution of the human race on this planet, a stage has been reached when,
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through the rapid acceleration of science and technology, man has acquired the power to transform his environment in countless ways and on an unprecedented scale. Both aspects of man’s environment, the natural and the man-made, are essential to his well-being
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Ethics: A branch of philosophy
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Seeks to define fundamentally what is right and what is wrong, regardless of cultural differences;
What actions are wrong; why are they wrong? Example: Most society it is unethical to deprive an individual of life |
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Morals:
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Reflect predominate feelings of a culture about ethical issues (e.g., killing is ethically wrong, but acceptable)
Example: It is not considered immoral to kill during times of war, or to protect one’s life; War: Ethically wrong, but morally right |
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Environmental Ethics
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BECAUSE it appears doing what is good for people can conflict with doing what is good for the environment --- and vice versa.
But not always so – forest protection may reduce logging jobs, BUT new jobs in recreation, fisheries and tourism. Environmental goal: Always hunting for “win- win” situations |
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Environmental Ethics
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Topic of applied ethics that examines moral basis of environmental responsibility.
Predominant mood of those in developed world is environmental indifference (agree?) |
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Three Philosophical Approaches
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Anthropocentric
Biocentric Ecocentric |
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Ecocentric:
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(nature-centered)
Environment deserves direct moral consideration (= humans + animals/plants + ecosystems) not derived from human/animal interests alone; nature considered on moral par with humans (almost a “person”). |
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Biocentric:
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(life-centered)
All life forms (living things) have inherent right to exist (humans animals /plants); -we have ethical responsibility to prevent degradation of earth’s ecosystems & biodiversity; some use hierarchy of ‘value of life’ forms :greater responsibility to protect animals than plants; others determine rights of species based on harm done to humans |
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Anthropocentric:
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(human-centered)
All environmental responsibility derived solely from human interests; humans are the planet’s most important species, and should be managers or stewards of the earth; our duty to protect environment because crucial for human survival. |
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Ecocentric View
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A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise….We abuse land because we regard it as a community belonging to us. When we see land as a community to which we belong, we may begin to use it with love and respect.”
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Issues with Life-Centered Approach
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Should ALL species be protected from premature extinction because of intrinsic value -- or only certain ones because of their known/potential instrumental value to us or their ecosystems?
Should ALL insect and bacterial species be protected -- or should we attempt to exterminate those that eat our crops, harm us, or transmit disease organisms? |
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Issues with Life-Centered Approach
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(3) Should we emphasize protection of keystone and foundation species over other species that play lesser roles in ecosystems or our lives?
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Ecofeminism:
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There are important theoretical, historical and empirical connections between how society treats women and how it treats environment (vs. male-dominated societies);
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Social Ecology:
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View that social hierarchies are directly connected to behaviors that foster environmental destruction (many are strong supporters of environmental justice movement)
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Deep Ecology
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A generally ecocentric view ;
a new spiritual sense of oneness with Earth essential starting point for more healthy relationship with environment (many are environmental activists) |
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Environmental Pragmatism:
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Focus on policy rather than ethics; human-centered ethic with long-range perspective will many of same conclusions about environmental policy as ecocentric ethic (emphasis on ethical theories not very helpful);
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Environmental Aesthetics:
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Study of how to appreciate beauty in natural world; some think most effective philosophical ground for protecting natural environment is to think in terms of protecting its natural beauty;
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Animal Rights/Welfare:
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Humans have strong moral obligation to ‘animals; not really environmental position because commitment is to individual animals, not ecosystem/ecological health (particularly concerned with treatment of farm animals & animals used in research).
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Environmental Attitudes
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Developmental Ethic
Preservation Ethic Conservation Ethic |
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Developmental Ethic
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Based on individualism (most human-centered approach)
Humans are, and should be, “masters” of nature: All natural resources exist solely for human benefit. Reinforced by work ethic: Humans should always be busy and create “progress” (i.e., = work to produce good; bigger, better, faster; upward mobility inherent in belief |
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Preservation Ethic
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Most nature-centered approach; nature is special in itself; has intrinsic value apart from human uses/needs;
Some want to see large portions of nature preserved intact (aesthetic to religious to scientific reasons); Also anthropogenic links – humans dependent on environment for aesthetics/recreational reasons Preserve nature for future generations |
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Conservation Ethic
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Goal is ‘balance’ between unrestrained development and absolute protectionism;
Anthropogenic in that it’s interested in promoting human well-being, BUT also tends to consider long-term human goods in environmental management decisions (e.g., rapid, uncontrolled growth is self-defeating in the long run) Thus, also considers long-term human resource needs and availability (many hunters are conservationists). |
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Society
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great variety of people with diverse viewpoints
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Western societies:
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Earth has unlimited natural resources & limitless ability to accommodate unchecked growth general economic policy of continual growth.
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Corporate Environmental Ethics
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Corporations exist not to benefit public or protect environment, but rather are legal entities designed to operate at a profit;
This notion is not intrinsically harmful or unethical!); Corporations produce things that “we” want! |
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Corporate Environmental Ethics “Green Business” concepts
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Goal: Practicing an environmental ethic should not interfere with corporate responsibilities;
It makes little sense to preserve the environment if preservation causes economic collapse (poverty implications) vs. It make little sense to maintain industrial productivity at the cost of breathable air, clean water, wildlife, parks, and wilderness |
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Industrial Ecology
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Link between industrial production (economy) & environmental quality: argues good ecology is also good economics;
Also, alternatives often exist for corporations to provide goods and services in ways that don’t destroy environment. This approach tries to account for waste; Waste is not useless or worthless material (nature doesn’t “waste” anything); Rather, waste = Residue that economy hasn’t yet learned to use efficiently. |
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Environmental Justice
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Promotes fair treatment of all races, incomes, and cultures with respect to implementation & enforcement of environmental regulations and policies.
Example: Waste generation directly correlated with per capita income, but few toxic waste sites are located in affluent suburbs (NIMBY syndrome). Environmental movement is no longer a white, middle class issue; affects all races & cultures. |
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Issues with Life-Centered Approach
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Should ALL species be protected from premature extinction because of intrinsic value -- or only certain ones because of their known/potential instrumental value to us or their ecosystems?
Should ALL insect and bacterial species be protected -- or should we attempt to exterminate those that eat our crops, harm us, or transmit disease organisms? |
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Issues with Life-Centered Approach
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(3) Should we emphasize protection of keystone and foundation species over other species that play lesser roles in ecosystems or our lives?
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Ecofeminism:
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There are important theoretical, historical and empirical connections between how society treats women and how it treats environment (vs. male-dominated societies);
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Social Ecology:
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View that social hierarchies are directly connected to behaviors that foster environmental destruction (many are strong supporters of environmental justice movement)
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Deep Ecology
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A generally ecocentric view ;
a new spiritual sense of oneness with Earth essential starting point for more healthy relationship with environment (many are environmental activists) |
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Environmental Pragmatism:
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Focus on policy rather than ethics; human-centered ethic with long-range perspective will many of same conclusions about environmental policy as ecocentric ethic (emphasis on ethical theories not very helpful);
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Environmental Aesthetics:
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Study of how to appreciate beauty in natural world; some think most effective philosophical ground for protecting natural environment is to think in terms of protecting its natural beauty;
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Animal Rights/Welfare:
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Humans have strong moral obligation to ‘animals; not really environmental position because commitment is to individual animals, not ecosystem/ecological health (particularly concerned with treatment of farm animals & animals used in research).
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Environmental Attitudes
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Developmental Ethic
Preservation Ethic Conservation Ethic |
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Developmental Ethic
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Based on individualism (most human-centered approach)
Humans are, and should be, “masters” of nature: All natural resources exist solely for human benefit. Reinforced by work ethic: Humans should always be busy and create “progress” (i.e., = work to produce good; bigger, better, faster; upward mobility inherent in belief |
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Preservation Ethic
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Most nature-centered approach; nature is special in itself; has intrinsic value apart from human uses/needs;
Some want to see large portions of nature preserved intact (aesthetic to religious to scientific reasons); Also anthropogenic links – humans dependent on environment foraesthetics recreational reasons Preserve nature for future generations |
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Conservation Ethic
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Goal is ‘balance’ between unrestrained development and absolute protectionism;
Anthropogenic in that it’s interested in promoting human well-being, BUT also tends to consider long-term human goods in environmental management decisions (e.g., rapid, uncontrolled growth is self-defeating in the long run) Thus, also considers long-term human resource needs and availability (many hunters are conservationists). |
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Society
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great variety of people with diverse viewpoints
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Western societies:
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Earth has unlimited natural resources & limitless ability to accommodate unchecked growth general economic policy of continual growth.
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Corporate Environmental Ethics
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Corporations exist not to benefit public or protect environment, but rather are legal entities designed to operate at a profit;
This notion is not intrinsically harmful or unethical!); Corporations produce things that “we” want! |
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Corporate Environmental Ethics
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BUT, when raw materials are extracted and used to make ‘things’’ (=resource depletion) ; some waste is inevitable pollution (water, air, land);Cost of controlling waste can be very important in determining company’s profit margin (and price to consumers!)
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Corporate Environmental Ethics
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Also, ‘stockholders’ expect immediate return on investments corporations often make decisions based on short-term profitability versus long-term societal benefit Resource exploitation & degradation.
Profit margin determines expansion. More expansion typically leads to more production and more wastes. |
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Green Business” concepts
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Goal: Practicing an environmental ethic should not interfere with corporate responsibilities;It makes little sense to preserve the environment if preservation causes economic collapse (poverty implications)vs.
It make little sense to maintain industrial productivity at the cost of breathable air, clean water, wildlife, parks, and wilderness |
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Industrial Ecology
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Link between industrial production (economy) & environmental quality: argues good ecology is also good economics;
Also, alternatives often exist for corporations to provide goods and services in ways that don’t destroy environment. This approach tries to account for waste; Waste is not useless or worthless material (nature doesn’t “waste” anything);Rather, waste = Residue that economy hasn’t yet learned to use efficiently. |
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Environmental Justice
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Promotes fair treatment of all races, incomes, and cultures with respect to implementation & enforcement of environmental regulations and policies.
Example: Waste generation directly correlated with per capita income, but few toxic waste sites are located in affluent suburbs (NIMBY syndrome). Environmental movement is no longer a white, middle class issue; affects all races & cultures. |
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Individual Environmental Ethic
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Recognition that individual responsibility must lead to changes in individual behavior.Recent opinion polls indicated Americans think environmental problems can have a quick technological fix:
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Individual Environmental Ethic
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Reality: Many individuals want environment cleaned up, but don’t want to make necessary lifestyle changes (i.e., don’t want to change consumption-production patterns)Examples:
Some believe cars, not drivers, pollute business should invent pollution-free cars; Some believe coal utilities, not electricity consumers, pollute use less environmentally-dangerous methods. |
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Resource Consumption
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Do we consume too much?
North America: --5% of world’s population uses 25% of world’s oil; Waste more food than most people in sub Saharan Africa eat 1991: Developing country representatives at Int’l Conference on Population & Development protested that baby born in USA will consume at least 20X as much of world’s resources as baby born in Africa or India |
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Resource Consumption
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--If rest of world consumed at rate of people in the United States we would need 5 more “Earths” to supply the resources Basic problem is that overpopulation in “southern hemisphere” is not only major problem facing our world; Rather, over-consumption in “northern hemisphere” also is a problem
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Resource Consumption
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Ecologist Paul Ehrlich argues American lifestyle is driving the global ecosystem to brink of collapse vs.
Economist Julian Simon argues human ingenuity, not resources, limits economic growth and lifestyles. To test theory: Value of metals Ehrlich: world economic growth copper, chrome, nickel, tin, tungsten scarcer drive up prices; Simon: Human ingenuity would overcome scarcity prices would drop; Who won?? |
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Resource Consumption
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Simon won!
Ehrlich: Global recession decreased need & many of costs of producing these metals were still being externalized vs. Simon: Superior materials [plastics,ceramics, etc replaced need for the metals |
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Global Environmental Ethics
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Ecological degradation in any nation inevitably can impinge quality of life in others.
Much of current environmental crisis is rooted in widening wealth gap between rich and poor nations (i.e., Industrial countries contain 20% of global population, yet control 80% of world’s good and create most of its pollution). |
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Global Environmental Ethics
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Lesson for developing countries: Rapid industrialization can cause massive production of pollution, which in turn will lead to increased localized environmental destruction and greater poverty (agree?).
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Risk
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probability statement (“possibility a condition or action will lead to an injury, damage, or loss”);
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Probability
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mathematical statement about how likely something will happen (vs. possibility)
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Measuring Risk
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When we consider activity/situation that poses risk (including environmental decisions), typically consider 3 primary factors:
(i) Probability of bad outcome (air vs. auto crash); (ii) Consequences of bad outcome; (iii) Cost of dealing with bad outcome. Risk analysis becoming important decision-making tool at all levels of society; |
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Environmental risk assessment
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Use of facts and assumptions to estimate probability of harm to human health or environment from management decision(s);
Over the past decade, the largest impact has come in practices involving carcinogens (DDT; PCB; Dioxin); more recently pharmaceuticals, medicines, home care products |
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Risk Management
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A decision-making process for weighing policy alternatives & selecting most appropriate regulatory action by integrating the results of risk assessment with engineering data & social, economic and political concerns to reach decision.
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Risk Management
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Risk Management Plan typically includes:
Evaluating scientific information regarding various kinds of risk; Deciding how much risk is acceptable; Deciding which risks have highest priority; Determining necessary funding to reduce risks to acceptable level; Deciding where greatest benefits to be realized from spending ‘limited’ funds; Deciding how plan to be enforced & monitored |
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Negligible Risk
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Point of no significant health or environmental risk;
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Ultimate Question:
What degree of risk is acceptable |
Public generally perceives involuntary risks (e.g., nuclear power plants)
>>voluntary risks (e.g., smoking, drinking); Newer technologies (e.g., genetic engineering) >> greater risks than more familiar technologies (e.g., automobiles, dams). |
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Deaths per million hours of exposure
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Cigarette smoking 3,000
Swimming 2,560 Automobile traveling 1,200 Air travel 500 Struck by lightning 100 Living near nuclear power plant 0.5 |
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Economics and the Environment
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Environmental problems are primarily economic problems:
BECAUSE economics deals with resource allocation (= description of how we value goods and services); Economic Concepts: Economic good/service = anything defined as scarce (i.e., we are willing to pay more for scarce things, but not things that are plentiful; “supply and demand”) |
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Economic Concepts
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Resource
Supply Demand |
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Resource
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Anything that contributes to making desired goods & services available for consumption;
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Supply
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Amount of the good/service available for purchase/consumption;
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Demand
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Amount of a product consumers are willing and able to buy at various prices
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Supply / Demand curve
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Price reflects strength of demand for and availability of the commodity.
Demand > Supply: Price Raises Demand < Supply: Price Lowers |
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Market-Based Instruments
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Uses economic forces provide incentive to protect environment by imposing costs on pollution-causing activities (= alternative to “command-and-control”).
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Five basic categories:
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Information Programs Tradable Emissions Permits
Emission Fees, Taxes, Charges Performance Bond / Deposit-Refund Subsidies |
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Information Programs
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Make clear the personal interests in pollution reduction (informed consumers/purchasing power);
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Tradable Emissions Permits
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Give companies the right to emit specified amounts of pollutants; some are tradable or bankable.
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Emission Fees, Taxes, Charges
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Make damaging activities more expensive;
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Performance Bond / Deposit-Refund
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Place surcharge on price of products that is refunded upon return;
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Subsidies
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Monetary incentives designed to reduce product costs.
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Subsidies are costly in two ways
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(i) Bureaucracy to administer a subsidy costs money, and the subsidy is indirect way to keep market price of a product low (usually artificially);
(ii) Subsidies often encourage activities detrimental to the environment in long term (and can be very wasteful; e.g., irrigation water subsidies). |
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Extended Product Responsibility
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“Life cycle analysis” can identify opportunities to prevent pollution and reduce resource use throughout life cycle of a product (raw materials to disposal):
Product design and process technology: Manufacturers have ability to reduce environmental impacts of products. |
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Cost-Benefit Analysis
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Procedure to determine whether a policy generates more social costs than social benefits.
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Cost-Benefit Analysis
Four steps: |
Identify project to be evaluated;
Determine all impacts (good & bad; now & in future); Determine economic value of impacts; Calculate net benefits (positive – negative). |
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Characteristics of Sustainability
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Renewability - don’t exceed ‘recharge’;
Substitution - use renewable as much as possible; Interdependence - recognize part of system; Adaptability - can adapt to changes; Institutional Commitment – laws & politics |
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External Costs
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Product-related “expenses” borne by someone other than those using the resource (i.e., transfer all impacts to somebody else);
Example: Polluted water discharges from factory to lake fish to die Thus, factory owners reap rewards vs. fish (and fishermen) suffer negative impacts |
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Common Property Resource Problems
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Common (public) ownership essentially means no owner(s):strong tendency to overexploit and misuse resources;
Common ownership makes it virtually cost-free for anybody to cause degradation or pollution. Cattle grazing on western public rangelands). |
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Economic Decisions in Biophysical World
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Many environmental problems are seen as symptoms of “imbalance” (lack of harmony) between socioeconomic system & natural world.
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Tragedy of the Commons
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Garrett Hardin (1968)
Pasturelands in England provided free by King to anyone whishing to graze cattle. Optimal individual strategy is to enlarge personal herd as much as possible. Each successive herd increases in size Commons becomes overgrazed. |
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Tragedy of the Commons
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Ecosphere is a large commons.
U.S. and other industrialized nations consume more than fair share of resources. Each nation freely uses the commons to dispose of waste. Tragedy of Commons also operates on an individual scale. |
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Science
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A process used to solve problems, or develop understanding of nature that involves testing possible answers
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Scientific Method
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Method of gaining information about the world by forming possible solutions to questions;
followed by rigorous testing to determine if proposed solutions are valid. |
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Basic Assumptions in Science
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Events observed in natural world have specific causes;
The causes can be identified; General rules/patterns exist that can be used to describe what happens in nature |
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Basic Assumptions in Science 2
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A repeatedly-occurring event probably has the same cause each time it occurs;
Something perceived by one person can be perceived by others; Same fundamental rules of nature apply regardless of where/when they occur. |
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Scientific Method
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Several steps:
Make careful observations; Ask questions about observations; Form and test hypothesis; Consider new information/ideas; Have willingness to submit one’s ideas to scrutiny of others. |
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Hypothesis
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A statement that provides a possible answer to question, or an explanation for an observation that can be tested;
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Theory
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A widely accepted, plausible generalization about fundamental scientific concepts that explain why things happen; E=mcsquared
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Law
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A uniform or constant fact of nature that describes what happens in nature. “Law of gravity”
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Limitations of Science
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Scientists struggle with the same moral and ethical questions as other people.
Important to differentiate between data collected during an investigation, and scientists’ opinions of that data and its meaning (e.g. climate change debates; “outliers”). “Some say humans are the cause of global and some say we arent, who do we believe?” Science cannot shed light on all issues. It is very easy to confuse hypotheses with fact (‘pseudoscience’; electrical lines, ionizing radiation & cancer; cell phones & brain cancer!). |
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Matter
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Anything that has mass and takes up space (water, trees, cement, gold, beer cans, DVD players, shoes, textbooks, BMWs, pizza crusts, coffee grounds, etc.).
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Atom
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Fundamental unit of matter (92 natural kinds): go up to 112 on periodic table
Protons (Positively charged) Neutrons (Neutral) “Elements” Electrons (Negatively charged) |
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Compounds
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Formed when two or more different kinds of atoms bind to one another (e.g., H2O, C6H12O6, NaCl, CH4)Glucose
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Molecules
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Formed when two or more atoms bonded chemically….when broke they release energy
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Physical Change:
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Cut piece of aluminum foil into smaller pieces; ice melts/water boils;
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Chemical Change
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Change in chemical composition of elements/compounds involved: Burning coal carbon (C) in coal combined with oxygen (O2) in atmosphere carbon dioxide (CO2);
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Acid
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Any compound that releases hydrogen ions in a solution.
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Base
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Any compound that accepts hydrogen ions in solution.
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Acid/base
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Strength of acid or base is represented by pH scale. Measures H+ concentration (Reciprocal and Logarithmic)
7 = neutral 0-6 = acidic (H+ > OH-) 8-14= basic (OH- > H+) |
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Chemical bonds
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Attractive forces between atoms resulting from interaction of their electrons. “this creates energy”
When chemical bonds are formed or broken, a chemical reaction occurs energy!. |
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Activation Energy
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Initial input of energy required to start a reaction
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Activation Energy
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Initial input of energy required to start a reaction.
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Catalyst
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A substance that alters the rate of reaction, without altering itself.
Can reduce activation energy |
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Chemical Reactions in Living Things
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Living organisms contain catalysts (enzymes) that reduce the activation energy needed to start reactions.
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Photosynthesis:
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ONLY Process used by plants to convert inorganic (non-living) material into organic material, using light energy:
Carbon dioxide + P + N + trace elements + water (in the presence of sunlight energy) glucose + oxygen 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 |
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Respiration: (Respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis)
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Using oxygen to break down large, organic molecules into smaller inorganic molecules (also releases energy organisms can use):
Glucose + oxygen produces carbon dioxide + water + energy C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy vs. 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 |
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Energy Principles
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Energy = ability to perform useful work:
Kinetic Energy — Energy in motion (wind, flowing water);Water Turbine Potential Energy — Stored energy; relative position (water behind a dam; gasoline). |
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Energy
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capacity to do work (move matter) or transfer heat; exists in several forms; can be converted from one form to another, but amount remains constant;
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Energy quality
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measure of energy source’s ability to do useful work
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High quality energy
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is concentrated perform much useful work (e.g., chemical energy in gasoline, coal, concentrated sunlight);Power vehicles
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Low quality energy
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is dispersed little ability to do useful work (e.g., heat dispersed in moving molecules in ocean).
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First Law of Thermodynamics
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Energy cannot be created or destroyed;only changed from one form to another;
Energy input = energy output we can’t get more energy out of a system than we put in; In other words: ”we can’t get something for nothing,” in terms of quantity of energy! |
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Second Law of Thermodynamics
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When converting energy from one form to another, some useful energy is lost
In other words: ”we can’t even break even” in terms of energy quality because energy always goes from more useful to less useful form when changes from one form to another; Also means we can’t recycle or reuse high-quality energy to perform useful work. Once high quality energy is used, its lost |
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Consequences of 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
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Automobiles
~13% moves car ~87% dissipates as low-quality heat into environment Incandescent light bulb ~5% useful light ~95% heat |
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Thermodynamics & Entropy
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Entropy = measure of disorder; increases when energy conversion occurs
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Example of 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
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Water pollution:
Nature doesn’t expend high-quality energy to keep pollutant molecules together entropy increases pollutant molecules spread to occupy largest possible space (e.g., ink drop in glass of water) |
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Thermodynamics & Entropy
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Orderly arrangement of matter always tends to become disordered the process of becoming disordered coincides with constant flow of energy toward a dilute form (heat)
Increased entropy |
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Ecology:
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Study of how organisms (including humans) interact with each other and their non-living (abiotic) surroundings
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Environment:
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“Collectively everything that affects an organism during its lifetime“ (can be different for each individual/community); includes:
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Biotic
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Living components (other organisms);
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Abiotic
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Non-living components (sunlight energy; inorganic nutrients; weather; geology, soil, altitude, etc.)
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Limiting Factors
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Any biotic or abiotic factor(s) whose shortage or absence restricts species ‘success’ (range and distribution; population size; fitness); examples = food, sunlight, temperature, other organisms, etc.
Large prairie to roam and a shopping mall is put in and it makes space a limiting factor, fitness health Birds eat bugs and the bugs leave the bugs will die |
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Range of Tolerance
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Range of conditions an organism can survive in
(e.g., temperature; pH; oxygen;) |
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Habitat
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Space an organism inhabits; defined by biological requirements of each particular organism (physical surroundings, temperature, water, food, etc.) = “address”
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Niche
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Includes all ways an organism affects organisms with which it interacts, as well as how it modifies its physical surroundings = “profession”
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Genes
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Distinct pieces of DNA that determine an individual’s characteristics
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Population
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All organisms of the same kind found within a specific geographic region
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First word spoken on the moon… Houston we have landed-
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First word spoken on the moon… Houston we have landed-
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Species
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Population of all organisms potentially capable of reproducing naturally among themselves, and producing viable offspring
Species is important if it cant produce offspring it cant exist |
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Natural Selection
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Process (external forces) determining which individuals within a species will reproduce and pass genes to next generation
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5 Conditions
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Individuals within a species show variation, some useful, some not
(= genetic variability exists within a species population); |
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5 Conditions
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2) Organisms within a species typically produce huge numbers of offspring, most of which die
(= ensures at least 2 will survive to reproduce); |
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5 Conditions
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(3) Excess number of individuals results in a shortage of specific resources (= creates limiting conditions competition);
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5 Conditions
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4) Due to individual variation, some individuals have greater chance of obtaining needed resources greater likelihood of survival and reproduction (= improves changes of ‘best’ organisms surviving);
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5 Conditions
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(5) As time passes, percentage of individuals showing favorable variations will increase; percentage showing unfavorable variations will decrease
(= ‘best’ genes passed to next generation) |
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Evolution
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A change in the kinds of organisms that exist, and in their characteristics
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Speciation
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Production of new species from previously existing species
Thought to occur as a result of a species dividing into two isolated sub-populations. |
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Extinction
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Loss of entire species;
Of estimated 500 million species believed to have ever existed on earth, 98-99% have gone extinct! |
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Co-Evolution
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Two or more species can reciprocally influence the evolutionary direction of the other
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3 Main Kinds of Organism Interactions
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Predation — One animal kills/eats another
Predator benefits from food; Prey adaptation is manifested in a higher reproduction rate Prey species also can benefit by eliminating non-adaptive genes from gene pool; |
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3 Main Kinds of Organism Interactions
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Competition —Two organisms compete to obtain the same limited resource;
both are harmed to some extinct: Intraspecific = members of same species competing for resources vs. Interspecific = members of different species competing for resources The more similar the competing species, the more intense the competition |
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3 Main Kinds of Organism Interactions
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Symbiosis — Close, physical relationship between two different species (at least one species derives benefit from the interaction)
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Competitive Exclusion Principle
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No two species can occupy same ecological niche in same place at same time;
Less fit species must evolve into slightly different niche |
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Symbiosis -Parasitism
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One organism (parasite) living in or on another organism (host), from which it derives nourishment
Ectoparasites — Live on host’s surface (e.g., fleas) vs.Endoparasites — Live inside host (e.g., tapeworms). |
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Symbiosis- Commensalism
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One organism benefits, while other is unaffected;
(e.g., remoras and sharks) |
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Symbiosis- Mutualism
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Both species benefit; Obligatory in many cases (neither can exist without the other);
(e.g., Mycorrhizae |
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Community
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Assemblage of all interacting species of organisms in an area
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Ecosystem
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System of all interacting organisms, including their non-living surroundings (i.e., biotic + abiotic components)
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Producers
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Organisms able to use sources of energy to make complex organic molecules from simple inorganic molecules in the environment (= base of food chain)
Photosynthesis: Plants + P + N + sunlight energy New plants + O2 |
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Secondary Consumers
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Consumers — Consume organic matter to provide themselves with energy and organic matter necessary for growth and survival:
Primary Consumers = Herbivores (eat plants) Carnivores (eat meat) Omnivores (eat plants & meat) |
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Decomposers:
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Digest organic molecules in detritus into simpler organic compounds, and absorb soluble nutrients (mainly bacteria, fungi)
Use non-living organic matter as source of energy (eat dead stuff) Keystone Species: Play critical role in maintenance of specific ecosystems |
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Energy Flow Through Ecosystems
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Each step in flow of energy through an ecosystem is known as a trophic level;
As energy moves from one trophic level to the next, most useful energy (90%) is lost as heat (2nd Law of Thermodynamics) Because energy is difficult to track, biomass (weight of living material) is often used as proxy |
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Food Chain
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Essentially direct passage of energy from one trophic level to next due to one organism consuming another;
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Food Web
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Series of multiple food chains;(A single predator can have multiple prey species at same time)
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Nutrient Cycles in Ecosystems
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Organisms are composed of molecules and atoms that are cycled between living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) portions of an ecosystem
Biogeochemical Cycles (carbon, phosphorus, nitrogen) |
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Carbon Cycle
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Carbon and oxygen combine to form carbon dioxide (CO2);
Plants use CO2 during photosynthesis to produce sugars; Plants use sugars for plant growth; Herbivores eat plants, and incorporate molecules into their structure; Respiration breaks down sugars, releasing CO2 and water back into atmosphere |
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Nitrogen Cycle
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Cycling of nitrogen atoms between abiotic
and biotic ecosystem components; |
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Nitrogen Cycle - Producers
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unable to use atmospheric N (gas): Must use nitrate (NO3) or ammonia (NH3).
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Nitrogen Cycle - Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
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convert nitrogen gas (N2) into ammonia:
Plants construct organic molecules; Eaten by animals. |
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Nitrogen Cycle - Decomposers
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also break down nitrogen-containing molecules releasing ammonia
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Phosphorus Cycle
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Phosphorus compounds released by erosion and become dissolved in water;
Plants use phosphorus (PS) to construct necessary molecules; Animals gain necessary P via herbivory; Decomposers recycle into soil. There is no phosphorus gas, it comes from the weathering of rocks |
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Human Impacts on Nutrient Cycles
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Two activities caused significant changes in carbon cycle:
Burning fossil fuels; Converting forests to agricultural land. Fossil fuel burning also increases amount of nitrogen available to plants. Fertilizer carried into aquatic ecosystems. Increase aquatic plant growth rate eutrophication symptoms |
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Population
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Group of individuals inhabiting same area simultaneously.
Birth Rate (Humans born/1000 people) Death Rate (Humans Died/1000 people |
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Natality
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Number of individuals added through reproduction (asexual & sexual; typically high for most species)
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Mortality
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Number of individuals removed via death (high for most species’:
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Three general types of survivorship curves:
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III). High mortality in young;
(II). Equitable mortality among age classes; (I). Mortality high only in old age; |
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Survivorship Curve
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Way to view mortality proportion of individuals likely to survive to each age;
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Sex Ratio
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Relative number of males and females in population.
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Age Distribution
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Number of individuals of each age in po
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Number of females very important
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ultimately determine # of offspring produced in population;
Also, in polygamous species, one male can mate with many females # of males less important to population growth rate than # of females; Most animal species have sex ratio of 1:1; |
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Humans:
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About 106 males/100 females In USA, higher male death rate
~equal sex ratio by mid-20s; higher death ratio continues into old age, with women outliving men. |
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Population Density
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= # individuals/unit area
(humans: dense in cities vs. lower in rural areas); High population may lead to increased competition for resources. |
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Dispersal
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Movement of individuals from densely-populated locations to new areas:
Emigration = Movement Out Immigration = Movement In |
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Biotic Potential
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Inherent reproductive capacity (= maximum rate a population can increase under ideal conditions; can be high or low);
Generally, biotic potential is much above replacement level. natural tendency for increase. All living populations follow an exponential growth curve. |
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Carrying Capacity
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Number of individuals of a species that can be indefinitely sustained in a given area
(= limit of environment’s ability to support a population) |
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Environmental Resistance
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Acumulation of any environmental factors limiting carrying capacity;
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Extrinsic limiting factor
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Predators; loss of food sources; lack of sunlight; natural disasters
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Intrinsic limiting factor:
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Overcrowding
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Four main limiting factors (= components of environmental resistance):
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Raw material availability;
Energy availability; Waste accumulation and disposal; Organism interactions. |
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K—Strategists
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Large organisms — long-lived;
Reproductive strategy = invest in a few quality offspring; Provide substantial parental care; Populations typically stabilize at a carrying capacity. |
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K—Strategists 2
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Controlled by density-dependent limiting factors:
= Factors that become more severe (i.e., affect population more seriously) as population grows in size (predation; disease; competition; etc); These factors tend to keep population at relatively constant size near carrying capacity; K-strategist examples: Deer; Lions; Swans |
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R—Strategists
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Small organisms — Short-lived; Reproductive strategy: Produce large numbers of offspring to overcome high infant mortality;
Little if any parental care; Usually do not reach carrying capacity (boom-bust cycles); |
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R—Strategists
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Controlled by density-independent limiting factors:
Population size is irrelevant to limiting factor (usually abiotic factor)(random weather events; fires; etc.); R-Strategist examples: Grasshoppers; Moths; Mice |
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Human Population Growth
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Major reason for increasing human population growth rate is increased medical care consequential decrease in death rates.
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Population Growth Rate
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Birthrate – Death
Rate;Usually expressed as percent of total population; Example: Birth Rate = 50 births/1,000 individuals in population Death Rate = 30 deaths/1,000 individuals in population Population Growth Rate = 20/1,000 = 0.02 = annual population increase of 2.0% |
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Population Doubling Time
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Doubling Time of a population (years) :
70 / Population Annual Growth Rate (%) ( 70 / 2.0% = 35 years ) |
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Interactions Affecting Carrying Capacity
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Available Raw Materials;
Available Energy; Waste Disposal; Interactions With Other Organisms. |
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Population density:
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# people/unit area of land;
Greater density greater environmental impacts greater“ecological footprint |
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Demography:
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Study of human populations & characteristics, how they affect growth, and consequences of the growth;
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Most important determinants of human population growth rate:
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1) how many women are having children, and
(2) how many children each woman will have; |
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Total Fertility Rate:
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# of children born/woman
TFR= 2.1 = replacement fertility [parents produce 2 children to ultimately replace them]; (BUT, why not 2.0?); TFR = 2.1 will NOT immediately result in stable population with zero growth (death rate falls first as living conditions improve deaths decrease before births population will continue to increase until equalized). |
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Humans are social animals with freedom of choice.
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People make decisions based on history, social situations, ethical and religious beliefs, and personal desires…
Biggest obstacle to controlling human population are province of philosophers, theologians, politicians, and sociologists. |
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Ultimate Size Limitation
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If world continues to grow at current rate, predicted population will reach 12 billion by 2055;
Human population subject to same biological constraints as other species. With certainty, human population will ultimately reach a carrying capacity and stabilize. Disagreement about exact size and primary limiting factors. |
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Population
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@ 2:23 pm; 10 Feb., 2010 = 6,801,942,671
Land area of Texas= 261,914 mi2 = 678,354,145,920 m2 Everyone in world could fit inside Texas at one time, each with a land area of ~100 m2 = 1,076 ft2 = 120 yd2! = 0.025 acre |
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Original predictions
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10 billion people by end of 2100; BUT “Indications women in rural villages and teeming cities of Brazil, Egypt, India and Mexico are providing predictions wrong”
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Originally thought:
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Birthrates won’t slow until poverty and illiteracy give way to higher living standard and between education opportunities;
Now “appears women aren’t waiting” and some demographers say “neither government policies or foreign family planning aid were critical factors” in decrease; “Just as women are pushing for a larger role in economic life around the world, they are also apparently becoming more assertive within families” – Director, UN Population Division; Continuing trend around world ???? |
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Biggest factors thought to be contributing to declining birth rate:
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(1) Widespread availability of contraceptives;
(2) Declining infant mortality rates; (3) Increasing urbanization (“children aren’t necessarily milking the cows, feeding the chickens, slopping the pigs, and taking care of the goats” “the return from children is relatively limited in urban environments |
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If Trends Continue:
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World’s population may reach 9 billion by 2050, and level off at around 10 billion by end of Century (~ 5 billion less than earlier predictions);
“It won’t double again, and no one sees it going to 12” “It’s like a slow-moving oil tanker: It’s slowing down, but it will take awhile to stop” |
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Mystery of the Missing Women
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Although more boys born than girls (106 boys/100 girls), “females are hardier, and have a greater change of survival at virtually every age and a longer life expectancy”
Therefore, there should be more women in world than men, but there are more men than women! New statistics suggest about 60 million women are “missing” on a global scale (believe major difference is in Asia |
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Mystery of the Missing Women
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Some possible reasons:
Continued preference for male children in parts of Asia (China & India have ~1/2 of world’s people) so strong that daughters have significantly lower chance of surviving than sons; Although killing of newborn girls is believed to be lessened, young girls appear to be “dying of neglect” Examples: Daughters receive less food than sons; parents more likely to seek medical care for boys; also more female fetuses are being aborted |
