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331 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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6 kingdoms |
plantae, animalia, protista, fingi, archea, bacteria |
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how many named species are there? |
1.8x10^6 |
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Charles Darwin |
"Descent with Modification"
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Macroevolution |
formation of a new species |
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natural selection |
adaptation into ecological niche |
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microevolution |
changes in gene frequency in a population |
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evolution |
a process of change that starts with a change in gene frequency in a population which ultimately results in formation of a new species |
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natural selection |
the primary mechanism that causes evolutionary change |
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How many total species are there? |
10x10^6 |
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alleles |
copy of a gene |
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genotype |
genetic makeup |
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allele frequency |
P+q=1 |
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population genetics |
deals with allele and genotype frequency |
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Hardy-Weinberg equation |
P^2+2Pq+q^2=1 |
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Hardy- Weinberg principle- the proportion of genotypes in a population remains constant IF: |
1. the population is LARGE 2. random mating occurs 3. no mutations occur 4. no "new" genes are imported (No migration- genetic drift) 5. No selection occurs |
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When does Hardy Weinberg eq. not work? |
1. small population 2. not random mating 3. "new" genes are imported 4. Mutation occurs 5. selection occurs |
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Review hardy weinberg calculations |
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Sickle cell disease |
classic autosomal recessive genetic disorder |
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5 factors that can change gene frequency |
1. mutation 2. migration 3. non random mating 4. genetic drift 5. natural selection |
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migration |
members of different populations exchange genes |
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Genetic drift: founder effect |
a few individuals become the originators of a "new" population |
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Distributive selection |
removes intermediate phenotypes |
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directional selection |
eliminates phenotypes on end of a range |
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stabilizing selection |
favors intermediate phenotype |
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Negative frequency- dependent |
rare phenotypes are favored |
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positive frequency- dependednt |
common phenotype |
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phenotype |
differences in expressed trait |
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adaptive selection theory |
hypothesized that natural environments are heterogeneous and several selective pressures are operating at any one time. Therefore, several alleles may be selected for at the same time |
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neutral theory |
Kimura hypothesized that heterozygosity is proportionate to population size x mutation rate |
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fossil record |
continuous change can be observes in some fossils |
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trends seen in horse evolution |
1. change in size 2. toe reduction 3. change in tooth size |
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homologous structure analogous structure |
"Same structure" "Same function" |
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vestigial structures |
structures with no function but common to other members of the evolutionary group |
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sympatric |
occur together geographically
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allopatric |
occur in different locations |
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species clusters |
Evidence of rapid evolution |
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Biological Species Concept (BSC) |
Species are groups of interbreeding populations that are reproductively isolated |
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Phylogentic species concept |
species are groups of populations that have been evolving independently of other groups of populations. Therefore, a species is a population or a set of populations characterized by one or more shared characters |
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3 domains of life |
bacteria, archea, eukarya |
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problems with phylogenetic comparisons |
1. horizontal gene transfer (HGT) 2. multiple, independent of characteristics (Segmentation) |
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protein- encoding genes |
Freq= 1.5 description= translated portions of 25000 genes scattered about the chromosomes |
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pseudogenes (inactive genes) |
frequency= 2 (1/3 times bigger than protein encoding genes) description= sequence that has characteristics of a gene but is not a functional gene |
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transposable elements |
frequency= 45 description= 21%: long interspersed elements (LINEs), which are active transposons 13%: short interspersed elements (LINEs), which are active transposons 8%: retrotransposons, which contain long terminal repeats (LTRs) at each end 3%: DNA transposon fossils |
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pseudogenes can be "used" in new funtions |
ex: toxic venoms |
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4.5 billion years ago |
Earth forms |
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540 million years ago |
cambrian explosion in animal diversity |
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250 million years ago |
Permian mass extinction (3rd mass extinction) |
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65 million years ago |
non- avian dinosaurs become extinct (cretaceous- 5th mass extinction) |
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homonids are most closely related to |
chimpanzees |
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bipedalism |
3.7 mil. y/o footprints |
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tool use appears |
2.5 million years ago |
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braincase expansion increases |
~2 million years ago |
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oldest known homonid, discovered in 1994 Ethiopia (4.4 million years old) |
Ardi pithecus ramidus (Ground ape root) |
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Raymond Dart (1924) (2.8 million years old) |
Astralo pithecus africanus (southern ape africa) |
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"Lucy" most complete skeleton (1974) (3 mil. years old) |
Astralo pithecus afarensis (southern apre afar desert) |
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Homo habilis (1960s) |
man "handy"- tool usage- (*Many scientists put into Homo Habilis*) |
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Homo Rudolfenis (1972) |
man Lake Rudolf Northern Kenya (1.9 million years old- (*Many scientists put into Homo Habilis*) |
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Homo Ergaster |
man work- (*Many scientists put into Homo Habilis*) |
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Homo erectus |
man upright- first "true man" |
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Homo sapiens |
man wise arise about 200,000 years ago from Homo erectus |
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H. erectus migrated out of africa ___ years ago and lived in Asia until ____ years ago |
500,000 250,000 |
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Homo Floresienss |
Dwarf- "The Hobbit" |
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Homo neanderthalis |
"thal" german for valley, 500,000-30,000 years ago- first evidence of symbolic thinking |
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H. Sapiens migrated out of Africa |
~40,000 YA |
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May 2010 |
H. neanderthal Nuclear Genome Sequenced -3 females from Croatia dating back 38,000 YA -1-4% of European & Asian Nuclear DNA matches H. neanderthal |
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Which population shows the greatest genetic diversity? |
African |
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What makes an animal? |
-multicellular -hetertrophis -no cell wall -active movement -diverse in form 1. invertebrates- 99%of species 2. vertebrates- 50,000-60,000 species - diverse in habitat -stereotyped embryonic development -unique tissues |
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embryonic development |
sperm+egg=zygote >morula >blastula >grastula >somite formation > organogenesis |
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ectoderm tissues |
1. ectoderm (outer layer) 2. endoderm (inner layer) 3. Mesoderm (middle layer) |
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adult tissues |
epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous |
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symmetry |
radial or bilateral |
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acoelomate |
no coelomic cavity |
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pseudocoelomate |
"false" pseudocoel |
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coelomate |
"true" coelomic cavity |
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protostome |
mouth developes first |
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deutrostomes |
anus develops first - echinodermata - chordata |
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controls segmentation |
Hox gene family (homeotic genes) "master switch" genes |
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animal kingdom has ___ phyla |
35 |
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Parazoa (subkingdom) |
lack definity symmetry lack tissues phylum prolifera- sponges |
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eumetazoa (subkingdom) |
all have tissues radial symmetry- cnidaria, ctenophores (diploblastic) bilateral symmetry- everyone else |
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evolution of the animal body plan |
1. tissues 2. symmetry 3. body cavity 4. patterns of development 5. segmentation |
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Phylum Prolifera |
sponges: no true tissues 7000 marine species 150 fresh water reproduce sexually and asexually |
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Phyllum cnidaria (about 10k species) |
1. Class Hydrozoa- 2700 species 2. Class Scyphozoa- Jellyfish- 200 species 3. class Cubozoa- box jellyfish- box 40 species (very toxic) 4. class anthozoa- sea anemones& corals- 6200 species 5. class staurozoa- star jellies- ~50 species (originally in scyphozoa) |
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phyllum Ctenophora |
comb jellies- seal walnuts, sea gooseberries ~100 species |
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protostomes> spiralia >platyzoa |
trochophore (free living larva) , lophophore (feeding structure) |
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Phylum Platyhelminthes characteristics |
flatworms- 20k species incomplete GI Hermaphroditic |
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Phylum Platyhelminthes |
1. Tubellaria- Planaria 2. Neodermata- parasitic class- trematoda- liver flukes 10k species Cercomeroporpha (old cestoda)- tapeworms & relatives Schistomiasis- blood flukes (200 mil infected, 800k+ die/yr |
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Phylum Rotifera- |
ciliated 1800 species |
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phylum Cycliophora |
ring of cilia, lobster symbionts |
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Bryozoa |
moss animals- exclusively colonial ~4000 species |
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Brachiopoda |
lamp shells, look like bivalves (mollusks), but shells are dorsal/ ventral ~300 species extant 30,000 species extinct |
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phoronids (10 species) |
now part of brachiopoda |
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Brachiopoda & bryozoa |
display a mixture of protostome and deuterostome features |
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phylum Molluska (110,000 named species) |
2nd largest group of animals 8 classes have 3 chambered heart |
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body plan of mollusks |
visceral mass- digestive organ, reproduction, excretion mantle- folds enclosing a cavity NOT the coelem! radula- rasping tongue like organ gills- in mantle nephridia- early kindey |
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3 distinct body sections of mollusks |
heas, visceral mass, foot |
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classes of phylum mollusca (only focus on 4 of 8) |
1. polyplacophora- chitons- marine ~8 overlapping plates 2. gastropods- (foot) nails and slugs ~40,000 3. Bavalvia (bivalves) Clams, scallops, mussels, oysters ~10,000 species 4. Cephalopoda (Head- foot) octopii, squids, nautilus ~600 species |
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Phylum Nemertea characteristics (similar to platyhelminthes) |
Ribbon worms 900 species complete GI tract largest member is about 60 meters long |
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round worm |
true coelomate, serial segmentation, closed circulation
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Phylum Annelida classes (over 12,000 species) |
1. Polychaeta- bristly worms, clan worms ~8,000 marine species 2. clitellata (new class- old class: oligochaeta)- earth worms ~3,100 species 3. class Hirudinea- 500 species |
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Hirudo medicinalis |
leach- Used in Blood letting to release "bad humors" |
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Hirudin |
protein that stops blood clotting- anticoagulant |
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coagulation |
clotting |
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heart attack- Myocardial Ischemia (heart lack of blood flow) |
blood vessel bocked |
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heart attack treatment |
-surgically- put in stent medically- Thrombolytics: lyse the clot |
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anticoagulants (prevent clotting) |
heparin, warfarin |
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phylum- Nematoda |
- round worms 20,000 species
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Pin worm |
Enterobius Vermicularis |
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Filariasis (elephantiasis) |
invade lymphatics, block edema (250 x 10^6 infected) |
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Arthropod body plan |
triploblastic- 3 primary tissues bilateral symmetry true coelem segmentation Innovations: -joined appendages -exoskeleton |
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fused segments |
Tagmata |
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arthopod body plan cont. |
fused segments compound eye open circulatory system ventral chain of ganglia (nervous system) respiratory system -trachae -gills (book lung, book gill) excretory system -malphigan tubules |
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arthropod classes |
1. trilobites- extinct 2. Chelicerata- fangs, book lungs- 57,000 species 3. Myriapoda- subclass Chilopoda- centipede- 1 pair of app. per seg., often poisonous ~3,000 species subclass Diplopoda- 2 pairs of app. per seg. herbivores, 10,000 spec. Crustacea- 35,000 species 4. Class Hexapoda- insects |
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Class Chelicerata |
orders: 1. archanaae- spiders, 35,000 species 2. acari- mites & ticks, 30,000 species |
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horseshoe crap |
first evolves ~450 mil. YA |
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cost of an exoskeleton |
simple, metamorphasis vs. complete metamorphasis 90% if insects instars- stages between molts |
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Phylum Echinodermata characteristics |
Spiny skin endoskeleton 6,000 species |
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Phylum Echinodermata classes |
1. class- Crinoidea- sea lilies, feather stars- 600 species 2. Asteroidea- sea stars- 1500 species 3. Ophiuroidea- Brittle Stars- 2000 species 4. Echinoidea- sea urchins, sand dollars- 950 species 5. Holothuroidea- sea cucumbers- 1500 species |
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characteristics of chordates |
coelomates deuterostomes jointes appendages segmentation notochord- "New" ~60,000 species |
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subphylla of phylum Chordata |
1. Subphylum urochordata- tunicates ~1250 species 2. Cephalochordata- Lancelets- Genus Branchiostoma of Amphioxus ~23 species 3. subphylum Vertebrata- fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals |
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characteristics of vertebrates |
vertebral column "head"- craniate vertebrates neural crest> neural tube extoderm> CNS complex internal organs endoskeleton of cartelage or bone |
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Fish |
more than half of all vertebrates most divers vertebral group |
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Ostracoderms |
shell skinned jawless fish (extinct) |
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Agnathans |
modern jawless fish class: Myxini- hagfish Cephalaspidomorphi- lampreys |
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characteristics of fish |
-gills- located in back of pharynx, extracts O2 from water, blood and water move countercurrent -vertebral column -single loop, closed blood circulation "heart" is muscular tube 2-4 "chambers", single circuit - nutritional deficiences arise inability to synthesize aromatic amino acids |
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Class Chondrichthyes |
-"Cartilage fish" ~850 species - skates, sharks, ras - no swim bladders - highly streamlined swimmers -teeth arise from skin |
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osteichthyes |
bony fish ~30,000 species |
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class actinopterygii |
ray finned- evolved in fresh water 1. swim bladder 2. lateral line system 3. gill cover (operculum |
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Class Sarcopterygii |
lobe finned- coelacanth- gives rise to amphibians |
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Evolution of the jaw |
jaws evolve from anterior gill arched of ancient jawless fish teeth develop from modified scales |
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swim bladdr |
high O2 concentration some fish fill swim bladder by gulping air other species "secrete" O2 into bladder |
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Amphibians |
"both lives" -invade the land- develop legs -develop "lungs"- breathe by gulping -some sutaneous "respiration" develop "skin" -changes in circulation- partially divided heart, pulmonary veins - still need water to reproduce |
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class amphibia orders |
1. anura- frogs/toads- 4200 species 2. Urodela (caudata) visible tail- Salamanders, newts- 500 species 3. apod (Gymnophiona) No feet- Caecilian- 150 species |
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class reptilia |
~7000 species (3 species of reptiles to every 2 mammals) - fully adapted to land 1. dry skin- develop dry watertight skin w/ keratin 2. more complex lungs- thoracic breathing 3. amniotic egg |
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Class Reptillia orders |
1. squamata- suborder Suaria- Lizards 3800 species suborder serpentes- snakes 3000 species 2. Chelonia- turtles and tortoises- 250 species 3. crocodylia- crocodiles, alligators- 25 species 4. Rhynchocephalia- Tuataras- 2 species |
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aves |
only 4 groups have evolved ability to fly: insects, pterosaurs, birds, bats key characteristics- 1. feathers: provides lift for flight and insulation of body heat 2. flight skeleton- fused clavicles, keeled sternum |
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Class Aves- 8600 species, 28 orders |
order Passeriformes- song birds- 60% of all birds 5276 species |
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mammals characteristics |
1. hair 2. mammalary glands 3. endothermy 4. placenta 5. teeth- heterdont dentition |
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class mammalia ~4500 species |
monotremes- egg lying mammals- duck billed platypus, echidna (spiny ant eater) Marsupials- pouched animals- 280 species- Australia, Virginia oppossum Placental mammals- 17 orders |
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homeostasis |
dynamic mechanisms that detect and respond to deviations (changes) in key Physiologic variables from their "set point" values |
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examples of controlled variables |
blood pressure, Po2, Pco2, pH, Body temp |
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temp regulation |
sweating/ shivering |
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muscle types |
skeletal- straited, voluntary
cardial- heart smooth- GI, lung, blood vessels |
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levels of muscle organization |
skeletal muscles, muscle fibers, myofibril, myofilaments |
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A bands |
dark, remains same size |
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I bands |
light, decreases in thickness when contracted |
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rigor mortis |
stiffening of the joints of a body a few hours after death, usually lasting from 1-4 days |
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skeletal muscle must be ___ to contract |
innervated |
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motor unit |
1 motor neuron and all the muscle fibers (cells) that IT connects to & activates |
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types of neurons |
PNS, CNS |
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white matter |
signal transmisstion lines |
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gray matter |
info processing |
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types of electrical activity in cells potential= diff. in carge density between 2 places |
1. resting membrane potential: all living cells 2. action potential: nerve cell (axons), muscle cell plasma membranes 3. synaptic (generator) potential: neuron- neuron synapses, neuron- muscle cell synapses (such as neuromuscular junction OR motor end plate |
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resting membrane potential |
all living cells have an electrical charge difference (potential) between the inside and outside of the cell
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electrical potential is because of... |
diff. in ions between inside and outside of cell |
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Nernst equation- this equation defined the membrane potential due to the ratio of ion concentrations inside and outside cell |
E= 61.5log ([ion]o/[ion]i) (outside/inside) |
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"local" potential |
-graded -spreads iin all directions - travels just inside and outside membrane (EM wave- traavels @ speed of light) - as soon as you remove stimulus- effect stops passive (with regard to the membrane) |
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action potential (all or none response) |
when you reach a threshold and the membrane begins to change on its own always have the same amplitude travels down the neuron- self boosting |
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VOC |
Voltage activated (Operated Channels |
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myelinated neurons |
"insulated" |
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Synaptic Potentials (also called generator potentials) |
-Graded (inc. stimulus, inc. depolarization) -Release of neurotransmitter (pre synaptic membrane) -Derives ROCs (Receptor Operator Channels) Acetyl Choline Receptor- (post synaptic membrane) |
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CNS |
Brain, spinal cord |
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Peripheral Nervous system |
sensory pathways Motor pathways- somatic (voluntary) nervous system, automatic (involuntary) nervous system- sympathetic division, parasympathetic division |
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neurotransmitters |
actetyl choline, glutamate, norepinephrine Noradrenalin), dopamine, serotonin |
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2 main ways to encode a signal |
1. frequency modulation (FM) 2. Amplitude Modulation (AM) |
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brain regions |
Telencephalon- cerebrum Diencephalon- thalamus & hypothalamus mesencephalon- mid- brain metencephalon- pons & celebellum myelecephalon- medulla oblongata |
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spinal cord functions |
spinal reflexes, relays sensory and motor info |
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medulla oblongata functions |
sensory nuclei, reticular- activating system (alertness), autonomic functions |
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pons functions |
reticular- activating system, autonomic functions |
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cerebellum functions |
coordination of movements, balance |
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midbrain (mesencephalon) function |
reflexes involving eyes and ears |
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thalamus function |
relay station for ascending sensory and descending motor tracts, autonomic functions |
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hypothalamus functions |
autonomic functions, neuroendocrine control |
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basal ganglia function |
motor control |
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corpus callosum function |
connects and relays info between the 2 hemispheres |
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hippocampus (limbic system) functions |
memory, emotion |
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cerebral cortex functions |
higher cognitive functionds, integrates and interprets sensory info, organizes motor output |
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Brain facts |
CNS- 100x10^9 neurons synapses 100x 10^12-14 |
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synapses |
where the info processing happens- 1 neuron may have up to 400,000 synapses |
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current super computers |
can simulate about 1% of the neurons in the crebral cortex |
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50%-70% of embryonic neurons undergo ___ |
apoptosis- programmed cell death |
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endocrine |
secreted into the blood |
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paracrine |
local secretion -endothelial cells- PGI2 -smooth muscle cells- vasodilate |
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autocrine |
secreted by the same cell type lymphocytes- interleukins |
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2 types of hormones |
hydrophillic- polar lipophillic- nonpolar |
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anterior pituitary secretion |
ACTH, FSH, GH, Prolactin, MSH, TSH |
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posterior pituitary secretion |
ADH (Vasopressin), Oxytocin |
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Hypothalamo |
Pituitary Portal System |
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T3, T4 |
inc. metabolism |
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TG |
thyroglobin (colloid) |
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thyroid cells |
both T3 and T4 are active hormones |
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goiter |
hypothyroidism, decreased TH secretion damage to thyroid, Iodine Deficiency now Auto-immune Disease in US Hashimoto's disease more common in females |
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hyperthyroid- thyrotoxicosis |
Grave's disease- antibodied against the TSH receptor but there antibodies stimulate the receptor inc. TH release heat intolerance, Eyeball bulge thyroid crisis can lead to death |
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Increased GH leads to |
Giantism- before puberty acromegaly- after puberty most often caused by pituitary tumor prominent jaw |
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Dwarfism |
dec. GH and/ or insulin- like growth factor |
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stress |
cortisol |
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diabetes mellitus |
inc. urine, more glucose in urine, lack of insulin |
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diabetes insipidus |
lack of ADH from posterior pituitary |
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circulatory system in unicellular organisms |
O2, nutrients, waste exchange by diffusion |
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multicellular organisms circulatory system |
need to move stuff to and from each cell by convection such as hydraulic pressure |
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major function of the circulatory system |
transport |
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Vertebrate circulatory system functions |
1. transportation- gas exchange, nutritive, excretory 2. regulation- hemostasis 3. inflammation and immune response |
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circulatory system |
1. heart (pump) 2. vessels (pipes) 3. the fluid (blood) |
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levels of organization |
organ system> organ> tissue> cell |
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the heart provides ___ to move the fluid around the vessels |
connective force |
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different types of flow |
1. concurrent 2. countercurrent 3. cross current |
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vasoconstriction |
to retain heat in the body |
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vasodilate surface blood vessels |
to get rid of excess heat |
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hematocrit= |
volume of RBC/ total volume |
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plasma |
liquid portion of the blood ~55% by volume in mammals contains -H2O -salts -glucose -metabolites |
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plasma proteins |
synthesized by liver- & are important to osmotic regulation of fluid |
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serum is not plasma |
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phagocyte |
"eating" cell |
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1. RBC's |
erythocytes mucleated in all vertebratesexcept mammals contains mostly hemoglobin 45% by volume |
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WBC |
leukocytes |
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platelets |
no nucleus in mammals- function in hemostasis |
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hematopoiesis |
blood cell development |
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growth factors (such as cell EPO) controls cell ___ |
differentiation |
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anemia |
dec. RBC mass "no blood" |
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polycytosis |
inc. # of RBC |
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Leukopenia |
Dec # of WBC |
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Leukocytosis |
inc. # of WBC |
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Neutropenia |
dec. # of neurophils |
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Granulocytopenia |
dec. # of granulocytes
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thrombocytosis |
inc. # of platelets |
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thrombocytopenia |
dec. # of platelets |
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Hemostasis |
prevention of blood loss -platelet response -fibrin clot |
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arterioles |
resistance vessels biggest pressure drop |
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veins |
capacitance vessels largest blood volume storage |
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systemic circulation |
aorta> vena Cava |
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pulmonary circulation |
pulmonary artery> pulmonary vein |
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edema |
too much interstitial fluid buildup |
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hemostasis vs. thrombosis |
normal vs. abnormal |
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platelet active drugs (anti- platelet |
aspirin, clopigrel (plavix), GPIIbIIIa (fibrinogan receptor inhibitors) |
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anti- coagulant drugs (prevents clot) |
heparin, warfarin, thrombin inhibitors- Hirudin- Angiomax |
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thrombolytic drugs (breaks clot) |
tissue plasmingen activator (tpa), strepokinase (originally from streptococcus) |
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blood pressure= |
cardiac output x vascular pressure |
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blood pressure |
is the defended and regulated physiologic variable of the cardiovascular systern |
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Sensors/ receptors in the cardiovascular system |
baroreceptors |
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why discuss blood pressure when we really want to know about blood flow? |
1. there much be a diff. in pressure for flow to occur 2. the larger the pressure difference, the greater the flow 3. the larger the radius, more flow |
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Ascites |
edema- peritonal space liver problems |
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circulatory system of fish |
one single loop circulation |
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amphibians and mpost reptiles have__ chambered heart: |
3, beginning separation of pulmonary (lung) and systemic circulations |
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crocodiles have ___ chambered heart |
4 |
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human and bird circulatory systems |
4 chambered heart 2 circulations in series -pulmonary circuit (right ventricle) -systemic circuit (left ventricle) |
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C.O= |
SV x HR |
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Resistance= |
(8n^L)/((pi)r^4) n= viscosity |
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gap junctions |
cardiac cells can act as one unit |
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calcium channels |
in cardiac muscle, not skeletal |
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cardiac valves |
pulmonary, tricuspid, mitral, and aortic |
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cardiac valves do not open or close because they are contracting, nor because of |
nerve impulses to them
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P wave |
atrial depolarization |
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QRS |
ventricular depolarization |
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T wave |
Ventricular repolarization need coordinated depolarization to get coordinated contraction |
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pressures involved |
right side- pulmonary, low pressure left side- systemic, high pressure |
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why different pressures in the two circuits? |
left has higher pressure because it has more area to cover |
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Integrating center |
cardiovascular center in the medulla oblongata |
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parasympathetic efferent pathway |
cranial- saccaral |
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sympathetic efferent pathway |
thoracic- lumbar |
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Multicellular organisms usually need to get gases to an exchange "surface" This is done by |
bulk flow or convective movement
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look at partial pressure problems |
kill yourself while youre ahead, friend |
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Henry's Law |
as temp inc. amt. of gas dec. |
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Processes of the Respiratory system |
1. ventilation- conective movement of O2- CO2 2. Gas exchange- diffusive movement of O2+ CO2 (Fick's Law |
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amphibian respiration |
respiration through skin/ lungs take advantage of more )2 in the air -skin highly vascularized -moist (usually) |
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Reptiles |
scaly skin- prevents H20 loss but also prevents gas exchange more efficient lung structure use Thoracic (chest) expansion & contraction for ventilation negative pressure more efficient |
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aves |
high metabolic demands, limit on weight, very efficient ventilation and gas exchange, lightweight |
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advantages of aves |
efficient, lightweight |
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Patm= |
760 mmHg |
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PO2= |
160mmHg |
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PO2 at mitochondria~ |
10 |
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Need Hemoglobin for |
carrying O2 |
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Why Hemoglobin to carry O2? |
1. poor H2o solubility of O2 2. O2 bloodto Hb is not part of O2 gradient - binding "sink" |
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Henry's coefficient |
0.003 mLO2/100mL blood/ mmHg |
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arterial blood |
5%Hb 90% HCO3- 5% dissolved |
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Renal Excretion equation |
E=(F+S)-R E= renal excretion F=glomerular filtration S= Tubular Secretion R= Tubular reabsorption |
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3 mechanisms of urine formation |
1. glomular filtration 2. tubular reabsorption 3. tubular secretion |
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pH plasma |
7.4 |
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osmolarity= |
molarity x formable ions |
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blood osmolarity= |
300 mOsm |
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sea water osmolarity= |
100 mOsm |
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"normal" saline |
0.9 NaCl = blood osmolarity |
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vertebrate nephron principles |
1. filter everything - reabsorb back desired stuff 2. H2o follows Na+, Cl- - control Na+ movement> control H2O movement |
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urinary space is the space___ |
inside the nephron |
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only mammals and birds can make ____ |
concentrated urine |
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loop of henle |
countercurrent multiplier which makes a concentrated medullary interstitium |
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vasa recta |
a countercurrent exchanger which carries excess water |
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reabsorption mechanisms |
1. PCT osmotic reabsorption 2. Na+- K+ ATP pump in PCT |
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Chondrihthes |
cartilaginous fish, use high levels of urea for osmotic balance |
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Fresh water fish |
needs to excrete extra H2O and save Na+ |
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marine fish |
needs to excrete high levels of Na+ and save H2O |
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Amphibians |
much like fresh H2O |
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Reptiles |
Some like friesh H2o fish, others like marine fish |
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many mammals cannot drink ___ |
sea water |
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nitrogenous waste |
azotemia, Ammonia is very toxic to cells |
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hormonal control of renal function |
1. Aldostrone- steroid hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex- cause distal convoluted tubule to reabsorb sodium 2. ADH (Vasopressin)- secreted from the posterior pituitary- causes water to be reabsorbed from the collecting duct into the medullary interstitium |
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diuresis |
put out urine |
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exocrine function |
- HCO3- secretion - enzyme secretion |
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type 1 diabetes |
missing insulin |
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type 2 dibetes |
insulin receptor not responding |
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9 essential AA |
1. isoleucine 2. leucine 3. lysine 4. methioinine 5. phenylalanine 6. tryptophan 7. threonine 8. valine 9. histidine |
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essential fatty acids (EFA) |
1. alpha- linolenic acid (ALA) 2. linoleic acid (an omega- 6 fatty acid) 18:2 |
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meroblastic cleavage |
uneven cleavage of yolk- fish reptiles and birds |
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hCG |
human chorionic gonadotrophin- pregnancy test |
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hemeotic genes determine___ in a developing embryo |
anterior- posterior, dorsal- ventral |
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apoptosis |
programmed cell death- also important in host defense |
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necrosis |
the other cell death due to cell damage |
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ecology- |
the study of how organisms interact with one another and their environment |
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levels of ecological organization |
1. populations 2. communities 3. ecosystems 4. biomes> biosphere |
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population |
groups of individuals of the same species that live in the same place
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community |
populations of different species living in the same place- an assemblage of organisms that share a habitat |
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ecosystem |
a community and the nonliving (physical or abiotic) factors. (Has a "regulated" flow of energy) |
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biomes |
major assemblies of small ecosystemsover a wide giographic area |
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population dynamics |
"demgraphics"- statistical study of pop. 1. birth rate 2. death rate dependent on -age structure, sex ratio |
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dN/dt=rN |
exp. growth model- N= number of individuals in a pop r- biotic potential- rate of a population growth |
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r= (b-d)+(i-e) |
difference between birth rate and death rate (corrected for migration) assumes no limit on growth |
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logistic growth model |
dN/dt=rN (K-N/K) |
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human pop. growth |
growing exponentially |
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community- |
all populations of different speciies in a geographic local |
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ecological niche |
niche is the sum total of all the ways an organism utilizes the resources of its environment even though the terms are often used as synonyms |
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potential vs. actual |
fundamental niche- the entire niche available vs. realized niche- what is actually occupied |
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principal of compitive exclusion |
no 2 species can occupy the same niche indefinitely if resources are limting |
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control cultures |
show how much is actually available 2-3 times more pop. size |
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predation |
has effects not only on ecology, but also evolution of communities |
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ecological succession |
communities have a stucture, communities undergo change to a progressively greater species richness |
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ecosystem |
1. all the organisms in a place 2. all the physical (abiotic) components |
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chemicals "___" through ecosystems |
cycle |
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energy must ___ and flow through an ecosystem |
enter |
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_% of all water tied up in ice |
2 |
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4 compartments |
1. atmosphere 2. biomates 3. dissolved in water 4. fossil files |
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increase in species diversity leads to a |
more stable community and ecosystem |
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biomes |
biomes are a major widespread terrestrial ecosystems -major communities of organisms distributed over a wide land area - land area defined largely by regional climate |
