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329 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What organs are included in the GI tract? |
Mouth, pharynx, esophagus
Stomach Small intestine Large intestine (colon) Rectum, anus |
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What are accessory organs to the Digestive system? |
Salivary glands
Pancreas Liver, gallbladder |
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What is the function of the digestive system as a whole? |
To provide necessary nutrients and fluids to cells of the body |
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What are the four processes involved with the digestive system? |
Digestion Absorption Secretion Motility |
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Function of digestion |
mechanical and chemical breakdown of foods |
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Function of Absorption |
Transfer of substances from GI tract to extracellular fluid (ECF) |
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Function of Secretion |
transfer of water/ions from ECF to GI tract; also release of products of GI epithelial cells |
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Function of motility |
Movement of material through GI tract via smooth muscle contractions (mostly) |
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Digestive tract is basically one long _____. |
tube |
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What are the muscular walls lines with in the digestive tract? |
epithelium |
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What closes off each end of the digestive tract? |
Skeletal muscle sphincters |
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What does this image represent? Memorize |
Digestive tract |
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Mouth (oral cavity): |
Mechanical and chemical breakdown of food (digestion) begins here - Mastication - Saliva |
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What is saliva exactly? |
Bicarbonate, amylase, lipase; also immune function --> lysozyme, IgA |
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Pharynx (throat): |
Common pathway for air and food/liquid: - air to larynx, trachea; - Food/liquid to esophagus |
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Muscular tube with both skeletal and smooth muscle; takes food to stomach. What is this defining? |
Esophagus |
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What does swallowing do the the muscles in the esophagus? |
Relaxes |
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In what part of the esophagus can you get acid reflux/ heart burn? |
Lower esophageal sphincter |
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What is happening during acid reflux/heart burn? |
Contents from the stomach get into the esophagus |
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What muscle in in the upper esophageal sphincter? |
Skeletal muscle |
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What muscle is used in the upper esophagus? |
Mostly skeletal |
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What muscle is used in the lower esophagus? |
Mostly smooth muscle |
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What muscle is used in the lower esophageal sphincter? |
Smooth muscle |
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What is at the end of the stomach? |
Pyloric sphincter or "pylorus" |
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What muscle is used in mechanical digestion of the stomach? |
Smooth muscle contraction |
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Food + gastric seretions = ? |
Chyme |
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Release of chyme into small intestine regulated by _______________. |
Pyloric sphincter |
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What does the pyloric sphincter do exactly? |
Controls rate of food release for digestion and absorption |
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Top part of the stomach? |
Fundus |
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What is the primary site of digestion (chemical)? |
Small intestine |
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What is the primary site of absorption? What does it absorb? |
Small intestine; nutrients, water, viatmins, minterals |
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What are the three major regions of the small intestine? |
Duodenum (1 ft) Jejunum (3 - 4 ft) Ileum (4 - 5 ft) |
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What happens in the jejunum? |
Digestion/absorption usually done early here |
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What happens in the duodenem? |
Chyme mixed with pancreatic secretions - digestive enzymes, bicarbonate Chyme also mixed with bile. |
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What happens in the Ileum? |
Continued digestion/absorption capability |
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learn the 3 parts locations |
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know the layers |
.. |
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What is the innermost layer of the small intestine? |
Mucosa |
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What makes up the Mucosa layer? |
Epithelial cells Immune cells (GALT, gut associated lymphoid tissue) Thin layer of smooth muscle Secretory cells Epithelial somatic stem cells Cell-to-cell junction |
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What allows for absorptive characteristics in the mucosa layer? |
Villi Contraction of smooth muscle |
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Give examples of secretory cells |
Enzymes, mucus (goblet cells) into lumen
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What do epithelial somatic step cells produce? |
New epithelium |
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What is more susceptible to cancer in the mucosa? |
Epithelial somatic stem cells |
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What is different about the cell-to-cell junctions in the mucosa than in other places? |
Leakier here than in stomach and colon Leakiness can be regulated |
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What does the submucosa do? |
Provides elasticity |
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The submucosa is a ________________ tissue layer. |
connective |
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What nervous system is the submucosa a part of? What does it regulate? |
Enteric nervous system; digestion |
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What do you see in the submucosa? |
Large blood and lymph vessels to pick up what has been absorbed |
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What is the outer wall of the GI tract? |
External muscle |
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What is the external muscle responsible for? |
Motility |
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What two layers of muscle are a part of the external muscle? |
Circular Longitudinal |
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Circular muscle: |
Contraction decreases lumen diameter |
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Longitudinal muscle: |
Contraction shortens GI tract |
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What is the second nerve network of the enteric NS? |
External muscle |
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What is the outer covering of the GI tract? |
Serosa |
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What tissue is the serosa made of? |
Connective tissue |
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What does the serosa do exactly? |
Lubrication against other organs |
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What four layers are a part of the small intestines? |
Mucosa Submucosa External muscle Serosa |
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By the Large intestine, ___________ and _____________ and mostly complete. |
digestion and absorption |
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What happens in the large intestine? |
Recovery (absorption) of remaining water |
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What does the Ileocecal sphincter regulate? |
Regulates chyme flow from small to large intestine |
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What does the water do that is absorbed by the large intestine? |
Turns chyme into a semisolid mixture of indigestible material called feces |
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Where is the ileocecal valve and the cecum? |
... |
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Flatulence |
Metabolic by-product gases from billions of colonic bacteria |
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What is an advantage of flatulence? |
Nutrient & vitamin production (eg fatty acids, vitamin K) |
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What is flatulence? |
Gas |
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Name some contraction patterns |
Migrating motor complex Peristalsis Segmental contractions |
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What is migrating motor complex? |
Between meals Series of contractions from stomach to large intestine Moves food remnants and bacteria from upper GI tract into large intestine |
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What is Peristalsis? |
After a meal Waves of contraction from section to section Circular muscle contracts just behind a bolus of food |
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What are segmental contractions? |
Short segments contract and relax Mixes food and keeps it contact with epithelium |
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Defecation reflex is similar to ____________ reflex. |
micturition |
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What muscle does the internal anal sphincter use? |
Smooth muscle |
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What muscle does the external anal sphincter use? |
Skeletal muscle |
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memorize |
anatomy |
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What are the "major" glands of the digestive system? |
Salivary glands
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How many salivary glands are there? |
?6 total - many "minor" glands throughout the mouth and throat |
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How do you secrete saliva? |
Water+enzymes+mucus |
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What is the function of saliva? |
Immune function (IgA) |
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The salivary glands are primarily _______________ control. |
Parasympathetic |
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What reduces salivary production? |
Stress |
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The pancreas only has an endocrine gland. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; has both endocrine and exocrine gland |
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What does the exocrine portion do in the pancreas? |
Secretes enzymes into small intestine - amylases, lipases, proteases, nucleases, bicarbonate |
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What does the endocrine portion of the pancreas do? |
Produces hormones |
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What do different clusters of cells do you see in the pancreas? |
Acinar and Islet cells |
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Acinar cells |
Exocrine Release secretions into ducts that lead into the pancreatic duct |
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Islet cells |
Endocrine Make hormones e.g. insulin Have a vascular supply (capillaries) |
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Which are acinar and which are islet? |
Acinars are the pizza pies Islets are the small square ones in the top right corner |
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What are the 6 major roles of the livers? |
1. Bile secretion (stored in gallbladder) 2. Metabolism of nutrients 3. Removal of old RBCS and bacteria from blood 4. Breakdown of toxins 5. Plasma protein synthesis 6. Activation/breakdown of hormones |
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What does bile help us digest? |
Fats - not essential, but helpful |
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Fat is not water soluble. What happens due to this? |
The chyme that leaves the stomach still has large blobs of liquids - Bile breaks up the large blobs into smaller blobs - Lipase can digest the small blobs, but it cant break through the bile - Co-lipase gets between the molecules to let lipase in to reach the fat |
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What stores bile? |
Gallbladder |
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Metabolism of nutrients is aided by what? |
A portal system that moves absorbed nutrients to the liver: Capillaries in digestive tract --> hepatic portal vein --> liver |
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What do capillaries in the liver do? |
Remove toxic compounds Break down some molecules Simply pass on others |
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Metabolism of nutrients: haptic vein --> ? |
vena cava |
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get the process down |
... |
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What is the largest are of contact between the internal and external environment? |
Gut or digestive system |
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Provide some defenses against pathogens for the digestive system. |
Digestive enzymes Mucus Acid Lymphoid tissue (GALT) Diarrhea Vomiting |
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You have at least 3 different kinds of diarrhea. Name them |
Psychosomatic diarrhea Osmotic diarrhea Secretory diarrhea |
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Pathological state in which intestinal fluid absorption is disrupted, resulting in watery feces. What is this defining? |
Diarrhea |
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What is the most common diarrhea? |
Psychosomatic diarrhea |
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Define osmotic diarrhea |
When unabsorbed solutes prevent water absorption (eg lactose, olestra, laxatives) |
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Define secretory diarrhea |
Pathogen induced; adaptive unless prolonged |
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Which diarrhea kills 4 million people world wide each year? |
Secretory diarrhea |
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What is Emesis? |
Vomiting |
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Variety of sensory inputs can lead to emesis: |
Psychological Chemoreceptors detect pathogens in GI tract Disturbed equilibrium (eg motion sickness) |
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What does the medulla obongata (brainstem) initiate regarding emesis? |
Muscle contractions from small intestine upwards (reverse peristalsis) Abdominal muscles contract Stomach relaxes, forces contents into esophagus and out mouth |
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To regulate the GI tract, what nervous system to we generally use? |
Enteric NS |
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What does the autonomic NS include? |
Sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric |
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Characteristics of the Enteric NS: |
Mostly independent In the GI tract Does the actual work of digestion |
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What does the enteric NS regulate? |
Motility, secretion of digestive enzymes and gastric acid |
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If the Enteric NS sends a signal, what is it saying? |
Presence of something in the stomach, small intestine, etc - short reflexes (local) |
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How does the Enteric NS communicate with the CNS? |
Via parasympathetic and sympathetic |
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GI tract regulation: name the other control mechanisms |
Long reflexes Emotions Taste receptors in gut |
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Give examples of long reflexes |
Sight, smell, sound, thought of food = stimulus Prep for meal: saliva and gastric acid production |
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Give examples of emotions |
Butterflies in your stomach Fight or flight reactions |
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What is found in taste buds and in some epithelial cells in the gut? |
G protein-coupled receptors |
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The long refluxes come from the gut. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; come from the brain |
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GI Endocrinology has been elusive: |
Diffuse endocrine cells Over 30 peptide products of GI mucosa have been isolated |
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What are 3 common peptide products of GI mucosa that have been isolated? |
Gastrin Secretin Ghrelin |
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Where is gastrin found and what is it stimulated by? |
Stomach; food presence |
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What does gastrin target? And what is its function? |
Other cells of the stomach; stimulates gastric acid release |
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Where is Secretin found? What is it stimulated by? |
Small intestine; acidification (chyme) |
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What does Secretin target? What is its function? |
Pancreas, stomach; stimulates bicarb, inibits gastric acid |
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Where is Ghrelin found? What is it stimulated by? |
Stomach; not known yet |
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What does Ghrelin target? What is its function? |
Hypothalamus; increases hunger |
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How are bonobo chimpanzees like humans?? |
Can have a variety of mating postures |
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Female hyenas are exposed to really high levels of ___________ during development. |
androgen |
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What is the structure that forms on female hyenas and how do the females act in response? |
Peniform clitoris; more aggressive than males, dominant to males, clit forms into large penis like structure |
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Reproduction is difficult for female hyenas. TRUE OR FALSE |
TRUE |
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Marine flatworms are true __________________. |
hermaphrodites; they use "penis-fencing" |
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What are clown fish known as? |
Sequential hermaphrodites |
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What does sequential hermaphrodite mean? |
Clownfish are born male (male-first; protandrous) but can rapidly change sex to femalewhen/if the opportunity arises |
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What does changes sexes involved when it comes to clownfish? |
Total reorganization of gonad, gamete, dominant steroid produced, morphology and behavior |
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What are the male gonads? |
Testes (singular = testis) |
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Learn the anatomy |
PENIS |
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What are the testes packed with? |
Seminiferous tubules |
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Where is regulation of gamete (sperm) production? |
In Sertoli cells |
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Where are the maturing sperm located? |
In lumen of seminiferous tububles, finalized in epididymis |
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Androgen (eg testosterone) production by ______________________ (Leydig) cells. |
Interstitial |
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As we move towards the lumen, the cells are becoming more mature. What do we see when we get to the lumen? |
Basically fully functional sperm cells |
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Define the scrotum |
Houses testes external to body cavity at slightly lower temp than body temp |
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Scrotum is no necessary for sperm production. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; is necesssary |
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What do the Dartos and Cremaster muscles do? |
Relax or contract the scrotum |
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What does the reprod tract include? |
Epididymis, vas deferens, urethra |
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What does the external genitalia include? |
Penis and scrotum |
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What is the sit of final sperm maturation? |
Epididymis |
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What does the vas deferens do? |
Joins urthra via ejaculatory duct in prostate gland |
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Reproductive function of penis: |
Deposit sperm into female reproductive tract Normally flaccid; accomplishes penetration via erection |
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memorize |
MORE PENIS |
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What are the steps leading up to erection? |
Increase in parasympathetic innervation to penis --> artery/arteriole dilation --> increased blood volume in erectile tissue --> physical compression of veins --> erection |
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What is this an image of? |
Cross section of a penis |
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what is this an image of? And memorize the anatomy |
Cross section of penis |
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Define accessory reproductive glands |
Glands that are outside the reproductive tract but are necessary for reproduction |
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What are the accessory reproductive glands? |
Seminal vesicle (2x) Prostate gland (1x) Bulbourethral gland (2x) |
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What do the accessory glands produce? |
Sperm, water, mucus, buffers, nutrients, enzymes, zinc, prostaglandins |
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What is semen composed of? |
Sperm, water, mucus, buffers, nutrients, enzymes, zinc, prostaglandins |
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70 to 80% of males world wide are _______________. |
UNcircumcised |
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In US, what is the current circumcision rate? |
<50% |
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What are the potential costs of cicumcision? |
Remove a lot amount of sensation and nervous tissue, you remove some protection of glands and head of penis |
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What are some potential benefits of circumcision? |
You can potentially reduce the likelihood of contracting aids slightly, you can potentially reduce the likelihood of infections |
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What is circumcision? |
Removal of the prepuce (foreskin) |
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Why was circumcision done from the beginning? |
To discourage masturbation |
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Female reproductive physiology characterized by: |
(1) Cyclic changes in activity (menstrual cycle), and (2) Restricted time periods of fertility (related to ovulation) (3) Limited gamete (egg) production (~ 400 eggs ovulated) (4) Capacity for pregnancy, birth |
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What are the female gonads? |
Ovary (plural = ovaries) |
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Define follicle |
Each contain a single ovum (plural = ova), or egg (gamete) |
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What are granulosa cells responsible for? |
Gamete development |
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What are the theca cells responsible for? |
Produce androgens; converted to estrogens by granulosa cells |
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What is this an image of? |
Cross section of an ovary |
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Label |
... |
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What is included in the female reproductive tract? |
Uterine tubes Uterus Cervix Vagina |
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Label |
.. |
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What is the site of fertilization? |
Uterine tubes (fallopian tubes, oviducts) |
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Uterine tubes (fallopian tubes, oviducts) |
Receive ovulated egg from ovary (fimbriae not attached) Connected to uterus Site of fertilization |
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Uterus (womb) |
Hollow, muscular, estensible organ Site of implantation (usually) Houses developing embryo |
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What is the site of implantation? |
Uterus (womb) |
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Define Ectopic pregnancy |
Implantation outside of the uterus ~1 in 75 conceptions; almost never viable |
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What does the cervix connect the uterus to? |
vagina |
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What is the uterine "watchdog"? |
Cervix |
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Cervix |
uterine "watchdog": - contains endocervical glands that secrete mucus - protective function |
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What is the mucus part of the cervix? |
Variable across menstrual cycle --> usually thick and acidic, but becomes thinner, more basic around ovulation |
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Vagina |
Canal that connects external genitalia to cervix of uterus Lining coated in acidic mucous - also productive Receives penis during copulation (intercourse) Serves as birth canal |
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What are the major differences between males and females? |
Males, urethra is the common passageway for the urinary and reproductive systems. In females, these passageways remain separate. Males, the urethra is longer. |
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External genetalia for females include: |
Vulva or pudendum |
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What are the outer skin folds of the vulva called? |
Labia major |
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What are the inner skin folds of the vulva called? |
Labia minora |
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Clitoris, clitoral hood (prepuce) |
Erectile tissue, sensory nerves |
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What is the region enclosed by the labia minora? |
Vestibule |
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Vestibular glands |
On either side of opening to vagina; lubrication (Bartholin's gland) |
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Label the vaginal cuff and the cervix. |
.. |
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Label |
.. |
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As males age, sperm count goes _________. |
down
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What is the average amount of days for sperm development? |
64 days |
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What part of the sperm has the nucleus? |
The head |
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What are the 3 parts of the sperm? |
Head, mid piece, tail |
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Acrosome contains _____________. |
enzymes |
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Learn |
.. |
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What is cranked up when the sperm reaches the female reprod tract? |
ATP |
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FSH targets what cells during hormonal regulation of male reprod? |
Sertoli |
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LH targets what cells during hormonal regulation of male reprod? What does it then produce? |
Interstitial cells; testosterone |
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get to know |
.. |
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_____________ release beginning in puberty for males. |
Pulsatile |
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What are the stages of male sexual response? |
Excitement Plateau Orgasm Resolution |
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Excitement male sexual response: |
Erotic stimuli (psychological and/or physical) --> penile erection (parasympathetic NS) |
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Plateau male sexual response: |
Increasing blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, pleasurable sensations |
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Orgasm male sexual response: |
Rhythmic muscular contractions that produce ejaculation: expulsion of semen out of penis --> sympathetic NS |
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What is the average sperm count? |
~ 100 mil sperm/ mL |
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< _______ mil/mL defined as infertile. |
20 mil |
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What does semen consist of? |
Sperm + seminal fluid |
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Resolution male sexual response: |
Relaxation (refractory period for erection/ejaculation) |
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How does the male sexual response vary? |
Orgasm frequency, age, health |
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Females are born with ___________ follicales. |
primordial |
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What are the stages of gamete development for females? |
Primordial --> primary follicle --> secondary follicle --> Graafian follicle |
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What is the largest form of a female gamete? |
Graafian follicle |
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ovulation: |
Follicle secretes collagenase |
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What is collagenase? |
Follicle/ovarian wall dissolved, triggers inflammatory response, leads to rupture |
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What is left behind after ovulation? |
Corpus luteum |
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FSH for female hormone regulation targets what cells? |
Granulosa cells |
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LH for female hormone regulation targets what cells? |
Theca cells |
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know this |
... |
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know this. |
.. |
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The menstrual cycle describes cyclic changes in what which occur during a woman's reproductive lifespan? |
1. hormone secretion 2. Ovarian structure/function 3. Uterine structure/function |
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Define menstration |
Shedding of uterine lining in absence of implantation |
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Define menarche |
Initial onset of menstruation (reprod competence) |
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Define menopause |
Permanent cessation menstruation |
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A typical menstrual cycle is, on average, how long? |
28 days long |
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Day 1 for female menstrual cycle = ? |
Start of menstrual cycle |
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About day 14 for female menstrual cycle = ? |
ovulation |
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What is the menstrual cycle driven by? |
Hormonal changes from hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and ovary |
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Increase in basil body temp during luteal phase is caused by what? |
Progesterone |
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What is the first half of the menstrual cycle? |
Follicular phase; follicle development |
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What is the basil body temp? |
Temp first thing in the morning |
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What is the second half of the cycle? |
Luteal phase; Ovulation and corpus luteum phase |
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Positive feedback right before ovulation: |
LH surge Not FSH |
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Inhibin specifically inhibits ________. |
FSH, with no effect on LH |
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What is the trigger for ovulation? |
LH surge |
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What happens during late follicular phase and early luteal phase? |
Promotes continued negative feedback of FSH |
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During early to mid luteal phase, what does estrogen, progesterone, and inhibin look like? |
All very high amounts |
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What happens in the late luteal phase? |
Corpus luteum starts to die off, once it dies, negative feedback is no longer there Shedding of uterine lining if implantation has not occured |
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What are the phases of the uterine cycle? |
Proliferative phase Secretory phase Menses (menstrual phase) |
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Define proliferative phase |
Regrowth of endometrial tissue in preparation for potential pregnancy; in response to estrogen |
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Define secretroy phase |
Uterine secretions of fluids rich in glycogen (energy for developing embryo); late secretory phase --> cervical plug |
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What is the secretory phase maintained by? |
Estrogen and progesterone |
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Define Menses (menstrual cycle): |
Shedding of uterine lining due to decline of estrogen and progesterone ("period") |
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What is the average amount of days for menstrual cycle? |
3 to 7 days |
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What do you see high concentrations of in periods? |
Plasmin which is basically an anticoagulant |
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What are the four female sexual responses? |
Excitement Plateau Orgasm Resolution |
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Excitement female sexual response |
Erotic stimuli (psychological and/or physical) --> vaginal lubrication, clitoral tissue erection (parasympathetic NS) |
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Plateau female sexual response |
Increasing blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, pleasurable sensations |
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Orgasm female sexual reprod |
Rhythmic muscular contractions of vagina and uterus; NOT necessary for conception Sympathetic NS |
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Resolution female sexual reprod |
Relaxtion |
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Viable sperm is in tract for up to ______________. |
~ 6 days |
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Viable egg up to ______ hours post-ovulation. |
24 hours |
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Approximately ______ day fertility window. |
6 |
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Sperm capacitation --> ? |
Necessary for fertilization - occurs in female tract |
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If a sperm cell makes it as far as the egg, the _____________ reaction occurs to allow it to get through the corona radiata to the membrane of the egg. |
Autosomal |
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What is the final reaction of conception? |
Cortical reaction which prevents polyspermy |
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What is a zygote? |
Fused egg and sperm |
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Zygote is ______________ prior to implantation ("total potential"); inner cell mass is _____________. |
totipotent; pluripotent |
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What are the steps of implantation? |
1. Ovulation 2. Day 1: fertilization 3. Days 2-4: Cell division takes place 4. Days 4-5: Blastocyst reaches uterus 5. Days 5-9: Blastocyst implants |
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Define totipotent |
Every one of those cells can still produce every other cell necessary for a successful implantation in fetal development |
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____% of zygotes die before reaching uterus. |
30% |
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When fertilization occurs, ~ _____% pregnancy failure. |
75%; reproduction is wasteful |
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hCG production begins during ___________ stage (days 4-5). |
blastocyst |
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How to prevent menses? |
1. Placenta keeps corpus luteum from degenerating during ~ first 2 months by secreting hormone: hCG - continued progesterone, estrogen, inhibin production 2. After 2 months corpus luteum degenerates, placenta begins producing progesterone, estrogen, inhibin --> prevents menses 3. hCG peaks at about 3 months, then slowly diminishes |
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What does hCG stand for? |
Human chorionic gonadotrophin |
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What is the Plancenta used for? |
Hormone production Nutrient/waste transfer Continues to grow during pregnancy (~8" diameter at birth)s |
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How long gestation for humans? |
About 38 to 40 weeks |
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What is the process of lactating? |
Using the central nervous system; senses around the nipple recognize a suckling feel, signals are sent up to the nervous system, and an inhibitor must be inhibited in order for it to work (inhibit the release of PIH cells); we get prolactin so we are making milk The sensory introduction also stimulates oxytocin production through the the hypothalamus which tells the posterior pituitary to produce oxytocin |
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What is prolactin responsible for? |
Milk production |
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What is oxytocin used for regarding lactation? |
Smooth muscle contraction to push the milk out |
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Right after birth, one of the first products of the mammary gland tissue is actually _________. |
colostrum |
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Colostrum: |
Initial secretion Low volume, low fat, low Ca+ High proteins, carbs Maternal antbodies Stimulates GI tract (mild laxative) |
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Milk: |
High fat, high lactose (carb), high Ca+ Also stimulates gut bacteria colonization & proliferation |
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What contraceptive has the biggest difference between typical use and intended use? |
Condoms; 18% to 2% |
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The contraceptives that have estrogens and progestins, do what? |
Inhibit GnRH (therefore, no FSH), basically mimicking pregnancy |
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The contraceptives that just use progestins, do what? |
Thicken cervical mucus and prevent sperm movement |
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What does the process of sexual orientation clearly have? |
Genetic basis, and hormone profiles experienced during early development are important |
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If female, the genital tubercle forms what? |
clitoris |
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If male, the genital tubercle forms what? |
Penis |
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If male, the urethral folds and grooves form what? |
Shaft of penis |
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If female, the urethra folds and grooves form what? |
Labia minora, opening of vagina and urethra |
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If female, the labioscrotal swellings form what? |
Labia majora |
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If male, the labioscrotal swellings form what? |
Shaft of penis and scrotum |
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What does DHT cause? |
Development of male external genitalia |
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In the absence of ______________, the external genitalia are feminized. |
androgens |
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What does DHT stand for? |
Dihydro-testosterone |
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What is the Bipotential stage? |
The external genitalia of a 6 week fetus cannot be visually identified as male or female |
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If female, gonad (cortex) forms what? |
Ovary |
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If female, what happens to the gonad (medulla)? |
regresses |
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If female, what happens to the Wolffian duct? |
Regresses (testosterone absent) |
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If female, what happens to the Mullerian duct? |
Becomes fallopian tube, uterus, cervix, and upper 1/2 of vagina (AMH absent). |
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If male, what happens to the gonad (cortex)? |
Regresses |
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If male, what happens to the Gonad (medulla)? |
Forms testis |
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If male, what happens to the Wolffian duct? |
Forms epididymis, vas deferens and seminal vesicle (testosterone present) |
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If male, what happens to the Mullerian duct? |
Regresses (AMH present) |
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What is the SRY protein? |
Testis determining factor |
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What does the SRY factor do exactly? |
Produces testes, testosterone, and male development
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If SRY protein is absent, what happens? |
You get ovaries, female reproductive tract, and female external genitalia |
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What does AMH stand for? |
Anti Mullerian Hormone |
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What causes the Mullerian duct to regress? |
AMH |
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Stress response is __________ meaning magnitude of response determined by magnitude of imbalance, NOT direction. |
nonspecific |
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Define stressor |
Anything that disrupts physiological balance |
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Define stress response |
Suite of physiological and behavioral responses that attempt to re-establish that balance; return to homeostasis |
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What is step 1 of the stress response? |
"Fight or flight"
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Sympathetic NS and Adrenal sympathetic pathway are involved in which step of the stress response? |
Step 1 |
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Release of epinephrine and nonepinephrine in response to stressor increase what? |
Heart rate O2 intake blood flow to skeletal muscle blood glucose |
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Who is considered the 'founder of modern stress research?" |
Hands Selye |
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What animal did Selye use in his experiments? |
Rats |
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What idea did Selye come up with? |
General Adaption Syndrome (1936) |
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What 3 stages did the rats experience? |
(1) Alarm reaction
(2) Resistance (3) Exhaustion |
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What happened to the rats after 2 days? |
Adrenal gland hypertrophy, altered immune response (1) Alarm reaction |
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What happened to the rats after 2 weeks? |
Changes not present (2) Resistance |
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What happened to the rats after 2 months? |
Death (3) Exhaustion |
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How does exhaustion work relative to stress? |
Its due to continued exposure to the stress hormones |
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What is step 2 of the stress response? |
Cortisol release --> acts within minutes to hours Involves primarily the actions of the adrenal gland and the cortex |
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Why did Selye think Exhaustion occurred? |
Originally thought to occur due to the stress response quitting |
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Type A personality --> ? --> Death What was this idea heavily funded by? Why is this? |
Stress; Tobacco industry; Trying to shift blame of deaths away from smoking |
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What does CRH stand for? |
Cortatrophin releasing hormone |
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There is a weekly rhythm to CRH. TRUE OR FALSE |
FALSE; daily rhythm |
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What two things affect CRH release? |
Circadian rhythm and Stress |
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Where does ACTH come from? |
The anterior pituitary |
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What does ACTH target? |
Adrenal cortex and causes the release of cortisol (which is a steroid) |
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What happens when cortisol is released from the adrenal cortex? |
- Causes adipose tissue to undergo lipolysis - Start to break down muscles for energy - Releasing glycogen and creating free glucose for the liver - Immuno-redistribution |
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What is lipolysis? |
Freeing biomolecules for energy |
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What does immunoredistribution do exactly? |
Leukocytes from blood to tissues/skin Enhanced inflammatory response Initial enhancement by Epinephrine/nonepineprhine followed by RETURN of system to baseline by GC (prevents autoimmune attack?) |
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Characteristics of the stress response: |
Gives us energy Increased oxygen intake Decreased blood flow to areas not necessary for movement Inhibition of: digestion, growth, reprod Change in immune function Decreased pain perception (endorphins) Enhanced sensory function |
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What happens when the stress response becomes too much of a "good thing" meaning constant chronic stress? 1)Increased energy use 2)Increased cardiac output 3)Inhibited digestion 4)Inhibited pubertal growth 5)Inhibited repord 6) Change in immune function 7)Enhanced cognition |
1)Fatique, myopathy 2) hypertenstion 3)Ulcers, metabolic disruption 4)Physiological dwarfism 5) Impotence, anovulation, no sex drive 6)Loss of disease resistance 7)Neural degeneration |
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Psychosocial stress: |
Can cause stress response when physiologically unneccessary; often chronic, leads to numerous pathologies (eg cardiovascular disease, GI tract problems, depression) in industrialized societies |
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What does psychosocial stress depend on? |
Perception Predictability Sense of control |
