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82 Cards in this Set
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HYPERBOLE
Definition: |
Hyperbole, derived from Greek word meaning “OVER-CASTING” is a figure of speech, which involves an EXAGGERATION OF IDEAS FOR THE SAKE OF EMPHASIS.
It is a device that we employ in our day-to-day speech. For instance, when you meet a friend after a long time, you say, “Ages have passed since I first saw you”. You may not have met him for three or four hours or a day, but the use of the word “ages” exaggerates this statement to add emphasis to your wait. Therefore, a hyperbole is an UNREAL EXAGGERATION to emphasize the real situation. |
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HYPERBOLE
Common Examples of Hyperbole |
My grandmother is as old as a hill.
Your suitcase weighs a ton! She is as heavy as an elephant! I am dying of shame. I am trying to solve a million issues these days. It is important not to confuse hyperbole with simile and metaphor. It does make a comparison but unlike simile and metaphor, hyperbole has a humorous effect created by an overstatement |
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HYPERBOLE
Examples of Hyperbole from Literature |
In American folk lore, Paul Bunyan’s stories are full of hyperboles. In one instance, he exaggerates winter by saying:
“Well now, one winter it was so cold that all the geese flew backward and all the fish moved south and even the snow turned blue. Late at night, it got so frigid that all spoken words froze solid afore they could be heard. People had to wait until sunup to find out what folks were talking about the night before.” Freezing of the spoken words at night in winter and then warming up of the words in the warmth of the sun during the day is an example of hyperbole that has been effectively used by Paul Bunyan in this short excerpt. |
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HYPERBOLE
Examples of Hyperbole from Literature |
From William Shakespeare’s “Macbeth”, Act II, Scene II.
“Neptune’s ocean wash this blood Clean from my hand? No. This my hand will rather The multitudinous seas incarnadine, Making the green one red.” Macbeth, the tragic hero, feels the unbearable prick of his conscience after killing the king. He regrets his sin and believes that even the oceans of the greatest magnitude cannot wash blood of the king off his hands. We can notice the use of hyperbole in the given lines as how effective it is. |
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HYPERBOLE
Examples of Hyperbole from Literature |
From W.H Auden’s poem “As I Walked One Evening”,
I’ll love you, dear, I’ll love you Till China and Africa meet, And the river jumps over the mountain And the salmon sing in the street, I’ll love you till the ocean Is folded and hung up to dry The use of hyperbole can be noticed in the above lines. The meeting of China and Africa, the jumping of the river over the mountain, singing if salmon in the street, and the ocean being folded and hung up to be dried are exaggerations not possible in real life. |
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HYPERBOLE
Examples of Hyperbole from Literature |
From “The Adventures of Pinocchio” written by C. Colloid,
“He cried all night, and dawn found him still there, though his tears had dried and only hard, dry sobs shook his wooden frame. But these were so loud that they could be heard by the faraway hills…” The crying of Pinocchio all night until his tears became dry is an example of Hyperbole. |
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HYPERBOLE
Examples of Hyperbole from Literature |
From Joseph Conrad’s novel “The Heart of Darkness”,
“I had to wait in the station for ten days-an eternity.” The wait of ten days seemed as if it lasted forever and never ended. |
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HYPERBOLE
Function of Hyperbole |
In our daily conversation, we use hyperbole to emphasize for an AMUSING EFFECT.
However, in literature it has very serious implications. By using hyperbole, a writer or a poet makes COMMON HUMAN FEELINGS remarkable and intense to such an extent that they do not remain ordinary. IN LITERATURE, usage of hyperbole DEVELOPS CONTRASTS. When one thing is described with an over-statement and the other thing is presented normally, a STRIKING CONTRAST is developed. This technique is employed to catch reader’s attention. |
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LITOTES
Definition: |
Litotes, derived from a Greek word meaning “SIMPLE”, is a figure of speech which EMPLOYS AN UNDERSTATEMENT BY USING DOUBLE NEGATIVES or, in other words, POSITIVE STATEMENT IS EXPRESSED BY NEGATING ITS OPPOSITE EXPRESSIONS.
For example, using the expression “not too bad” for “very good” is an understatement as well as a double negative statement that confirms a positive idea by negating the opposite. Similarly, saying “She is not a beauty queen,” means “She is ugly” or saying “I am not as young as I used to be” in order to avoid saying “I am old”. Litotes, therefore, is an intentional use of understatement that renders an ironical effect. |
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LITOTES
Common Examples: |
n everyday life, it is common to experience litotes in conversations although not many of the people are aware of this term and its usage. Below are a few common examples of litotes:
They do not seem the happiest couple around. The ice cream was not too bad. New York is not an ordinary city. You comments on politics are not useless. You are not as young as you used to be. I cannot disagree with your point of view. William Shakespeare was not a bad playwright at all. He is not the cleverest person I have ever met. She is not unlike her mother. Ken Adams is not an ordinary man A million dollars in not a little amount. You are not doing badly at all. Your apartment is not unclean. Interestingly, the use of understatement in the above examples adds emphasis to the ideas rather than decreasing their importance and the reason is the ironical effect produced by the understatement. |
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LITOTES
Examples of Litotes in Literature: (In literature, writers and poets use this figure of speech in their texts in order to communicate novel ideas to readers vividly.) |
Example 1
“I am not unaware how the productions of the Grub Street brotherhood have of late years fallen under many prejudices.” (Jonathan Swift, A Tale of a Tub) Now just see how Swift has used double negatives to emphasize the point that he is totally aware of it. The irony is that he is aware but he is saying as if he is unaware that he is not. |
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LITOTES
Examples of Litotes in Literature: (In literature, writers and poets use this figure of speech in their texts in order to communicate novel ideas to readers vividly.) |
Example 2
“Some say the world will end in fire, Some say in ice. From what I’ve tasted of desire I hold with those who favor fire. But if I had to perish twice, I think I know enough of hate To say that for destruction ice Is also great And would suffice.” Now read this short piece “Fire and Ice” by Robert Frost very carefully. Calling the destruction caused by the “great” is balanced by an opposing statement “would suffice” that is an understatement. |
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LITOTES
Examples of Litotes in Literature: (In literature, writers and poets use this figure of speech in their texts in order to communicate novel ideas to readers vividly.) |
Example 3
“Indeed, it is not uncommon for slaves even to fall out and quarrel among themselves about the relative goodness of their masters, each contending for the superior goodness of his own over that of the others.” This line has been taken from “Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass; An American Slave” by Frederick Douglass himself. He was an African-American social reformer and a writer. He has effectively used litotes to stress that his point that even slaves used to seek dominance over other slaves by stressing the point that they respective masters were much better than that of the others. |
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LITOTES
Function of Litotes: |
Litotes uses IRONICAL UNDERSTATEMENT in order to EMPHASIZE AN IDEA OR SITUATION rather than minimizing their importance.
It rather discovers a unique way to ATTRACT PEOPLE'S ATTENTION to an idea and that is by IGNORING it. J.R. Bergmann in his book “Talk at Work: Interaction in Institutional Settings” talks about litotes in the following words: “I want to claim that the rhetorical figure litotes is one of those methods which are used to talk about an object in a discreet way. It clearly locates an object for the recipient, but it avoids naming it directly.” This is the best that has ever been said about litotes that to IGNORE AN OBJECT AND STILL TALK ABOUT IT IN A NEGATIVE WAY is the best way to make it appear important and prominent. |
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EUPHEMISM
Definition: |
The term euphemism refers to POLITE, INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS which replace words and phrases considered HARSH and IMPOLITE or suggest something UNPLEASANT.
Euphemism is an idiomatic expression which loses its literal meanings and refers to something else in order to hide its unpleasantness. For example, “kick the bucket” is a euphemism that expresses death of a person. In addition, many organizations use the term “downsizing” for the rude act of “firing” its employees. Euphemism depends largely on the social context of the speakers and writers where they feel the need of replacing certain words which may prove embarrassing for particular listeners or readers in a particular situation. |
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EUPHEMISM
Techniques for Creating Euphemism: |
Euphemism masks a rude or impolite expression but conveys the concept clearly and politely. Several techniques are employed to create euphemism. It may be in the form of ABBREVIATIONSe.g. B.O. (body odor), W.C. (toilet) etc. Foreign words may be used to replace an impolite expression e.g. faux (fake), or faux pas (foolish error) etc. Sometimes, they are ABSTRACTIONS e.g. before I go (before I die). They may also be INDIRECT EXPRESSIONS replacing direct ones which may sound offensive e.g. rear-end, unmentionables etc.
Using longer words or phrases can also mask unpleasant words e.g. flatulence for farting, perspiration for sweat, mentally challenged for stupid etc. Using technical terms may reduce the rudeness exhibited by words e.g. gluteus maximus. Deliberately mispronouncing an offensive word may reduce its severity e.g. darn, shoot etc. |
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EUPHEMISM
Examples of Euphemism in Everyday Life: |
You are becoming a little thin at top (bald).
Our teacher is in the family way (pregnant). He is always tired and emotional (drunk). We do not hire mentally challenged (stupid) people. He is a special child (disabled or retarded). |
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EUPHEMISM
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“The Squealer”, a character in George Orwell’s “Animal Farm”, uses euphemisms to help “the pigs” achieve their political ends. To announce the reduction of food to the animals of the farm, Orwell quotes him saying:
“For the time being,” he explains, “it had been found necessary to make a readjustment of rations.” Substituting the word “reduction” with “readjustment” was an attempt to suppress the complaints of other animals about hunger. It works because reduction means “cutting” food supply while readjustment implies changing the current amount of food. |
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EUPHEMISM
Function of Euphemism: |
Euphemism helps writers to convey those ideas which have become a SOCIAL TABOO and are too EMBARRASSING TO MENTION DIRECTLY. Writers skillfully choose appropriate words to refer to and discuss a subject indirectly which otherwise are not published due to strict social censor e.g. religious fanaticism, political theories, sexuality, death etc. Thus, euphemism is a useful tool that allows writers to write figuratively about the libelous issues.
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INNUENDO
(disambiguation) DEFINITION: |
An innuendo is a figure of speech which indicates an indirect or subtle, usually derogatory implication in expression; an insinuation.
Innuendo is 'saying something without saying it', often implying something negative or politically incorrect, through allusion or insinuation. Example She's got a great future in front of her! Is that a gun in your pocket or are you just pleased to see me? Know what I mean? Nudge, nudge! Wink, wink! |
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INNUENDO
DISCUSSION: |
When you are prevented from saying something due to social norms, such as when certain words are forbidden or even from politeness, then it is common to try and get others to understand by using metaphor of some kind.
If the person using innuendo does not get the response they require, it is not uncommon for them to increase their attempts, exaggerating the innuendo or using further suggestion. An advantage that innuendo gives the person using it is that it deniable, should they be called out for making improper suggestions. Sexual innuendo is common, particularly in drama that written in times when explicit language could not be used. Used well, it can create a humorous situation, for example by referencing sexually-related parts of the body. Innuendo can also be produced without language, using gestures and substitute items such as melons. Sexual innuendo is also used in flirting and may be unwelcome. Classification: Substitution |
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CLIMAX
Definition : |
Climax, a Greek term meaning “LADDER”, is that is that particular point in a narrative at which the conflict or tension hits the highest point.
Climax is a structural part of a plot and is at times referred to as crisis. It is a decisive moment or a turning point in a storyline at which the rising action turns around into a falling action. Thus, climax in the point at which a conflict or crisis reaches its peak that calls for a resolution or denouement (conclusion). In a five act play, the climax is close to the conclusion of act 3. Later in the 19th century, the five act plays were replaced by three act plays and the climax was placed close to the conclusion or at the end of the play. |
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CLIMAX
Examples of Climax in Literature: |
In William Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet”, the story reaches its climax in Act 3. In the first scene of the act, Romeo challenges Tybalt to a duel after he (Tybalt) killed Mercutio:
“And fire-eyed fury be my conduct now! Now, Tybalt, take the ‘villain’ back again That late thou gavest me; for Mercutio’s soul Is but a little way above our heads,” As soon as he killed Tybalt, Romeo says: “O! I am Fortune’s Fool!” He realizes that he has killed his wife’s cousin. This juncture in the play is a climax as the audience wonders how Romeo would get out of this mistake. Similarly, it qualifies as a climax because after this act all the prior conflicts start to resolve and mysteries unfold themselves and thus the story moves toward its logical conclusion during the coming scenes. |
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CLIMAX
Examples of Climax in Literature: |
In William Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet”, the story reaches its climax in Act 3. In the first scene of the act, Romeo challenges Tybalt to a duel after he (Tybalt) killed Mercutio:
“And fire-eyed fury be my conduct now! Now, Tybalt, take the ‘villain’ back again That late thou gavest me; for Mercutio’s soul Is but a little way above our heads,” As soon as he killed Tybalt, Romeo says: “O! I am Fortune’s Fool!” He realizes that he has killed his wife’s cousin. This juncture in the play is a climax as the audience wonders how Romeo would get out of this mistake. Similarly, it qualifies as a climax because after this act all the prior conflicts start to resolve and mysteries unfold themselves and thus the story moves toward its logical conclusion during the coming scenes. |
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CLIMAX
Examples of Climax in Literature: |
In Joseph Conrad’s novel “The Heart of Darkness”, the narrative reaches its climax when Marlowe starts his journey in his steam boat, in the direction of the inner station and his final discovery upon reaching the station and meeting “Kurtz”. He was shocked to discover that Kurtz abandoned all norms and morals of his civilization after giving in to the savage customs of the wild Congo. Following this point in the novel, the mystery surrounding Kurtz is unfolded and the questions in the mind of Marlow find their answers automatically when he sees the real situation.
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CLIMAX
Climax as a Stylistic Device: |
As a stylistic device, the term climax refers to a literary device in which words, phrases and clauses are arranged in an order to increase their importance within the sentence. For example, see how William Shakespeare achieves climax in the passage below taken from his Sonnet “The Passionate Pilgrim”:
“Beauty is but a vain and doubtful good; A shining gloss that vadeth suddenly; A flower that dies when first it gins to bud; A brittle glass that’s broken presently: A doubtful good, a gloss, a glass, a flower, Lost, vaded, broken, dead within an hour.” The phrase “dead within an hour” is placed at the very end as it marks the climax of the fate of beauty which he introduces as “a vain and doubtful good”. Below is another example of a climax as a stylistic device in “I Have a Dream”, a memorable address of Martin Luther King: “This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as well as white men, would be guaranteed the unalienable Rights of Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.” The aforementioned line qualifies as the climax of Martin Luther’s speech which criticizes and rejects racial discrimination suffered by the black Americans at the hands of the Whites. |
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CLIMAX
Function of Climax |
A climax when used as a plot device helps readers understand the significance of the rising action earlier to the point in the plot where the conflict reaches its peak. Climax of the story makes readers mentally prepared for resolution of the conflict. Hence, climax is important to plot structure of a story. Moreover, climax is used as a stylistic device or a figure of speech to render balance and brevity to speech or writing. Being properly employed, it qualifies itself as a powerful tool that can instantly claim the undivided attention of the listeners and readers alike. Hence, its importance cannot be underestimated.
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ANTI-CLIMAX (BATHOS)
Definition : |
Bathos is literary term derived from a Greek word meaning “DEPTH”. When a writer or a poet, in an effort to be INCREASINGLY EMOTIONAL or PASSIONATE, falls into INCONSEQUENTIAL and ABSURD METAPHORS, DESCRIPTIONS or IDEAS, it is called BATHOS. It should not be confused with pathos.
The term was used by Alexander Pope to explain the blunders committed inadvertently by unskilled writers or poets. However, later on the comic writers used it intentionally to create humorous effects. The most commonly used bathos involves a sequence of items that descend from worthiness to silliness. |
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ANTI-CLIMAX (BATHOS)
Examples of Bathos: |
The Mary Tyler Moore Show had an episode that involved the death of the clown Chuckles, who was killed very brutally by a stampeding elephant. Everyone on the station keeps making jokes about it that Mary does not approve of. Later on, when she attends the funeral, she starts laughing hysterically while the rest of the people stare at her exasperated.
A method like this one could be used in more absurd styles of humor, such as the television series Police Squad uses bathos very often. The excerpts from The Naked Gun show numerous points where a serious scene is built up only to knock it down subsequently with Frank Drebin’s silly comments. For example: “FRANK: A good cop – pointlessly cut down by some spineless hoodlums. ED: That’s no way for a man to die. FRANK: No… you’re right, Ed. A parachute not opening… that’s a way to die, getting caught in the gears of a combine… having your nuts bit off by a Laplander, that’s the way I want to go! WILMA NORDBERG: Oh… Frank. This is terrible! ED: Don’t you worry, Wilma. Your husband is going to be alright. Don’t you worry about anything! Just think positive. Never let a doubt enter your mind. FRANK: He’s right, Wilma. But I wouldn’t wait until the last minute to fill out those organ donor cards. (The Naked Gun, 1988) |
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ANTI-CLIMAX (BATHOS)
Examples of Bathos: |
Jane Austen is among the few serious writers who used this tool to give a sense of merriness to her novel Northanger Abbey. She used this tool to satirize the extremes of the Gothic fiction of eighteenth century.
Jane Austen highlights the ingenuous and imaginative nature of the leading character Catherine Morland. She uses Catherine’s increasingly active imagination to work like bathos in order to parody the plot used in Ann Radcliffe’s Gothic novels and the likes of her. A mysterious chest was used in the Gothic fiction in the eighteenth century as a prop to build on. In the novel The Romance of the Forest authored by Radcliff, a character finds a human skeleton in the chest. Catherine became skeptic when she saw the enormous chest in her room during her stay at the Abbey. Certain questions arose in her mind about that chest and about what it held and why it was placed in her room. Catherine who seemed to be very naïve went on investigating the chest. You can see that the novel at this particular point adopts a very gothic tone. It starts using short clauses that consist of many inauspicious words for instance, ‘trembling hands’, ‘alarming violence’ and ‘fearful curiosity’. The selection of words at this point aids in building up the suspense in the readers’ and audience’s head only to discover consequently that the chest holds folded bed sheet. |
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ANTI-CLIMAX (BATHOS)
Examples of Bathos: |
Another example from the British radio series I’m Sorry I’ll Read That Again also provides us with many bathos examples. John Cleese and Jo Kendall appeared in roles of a couple whose relationship is on the brim of failure.
MARY: John – once we had something that was pure, and wonderful, and good. What’s happened to it? JOHN: You spent it all. When Mary says “something pure and wonderful” she actually explains deep, sacred, noble form of love but the description is vague enough for John to manipulate. |
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ANTI-CLIMAX (BATHOS)
Functions of Bathos: |
BATHOSis a device, which if used skillfully, could really build up a nice COMIC SCENE. BATHOS brings a certain degree of wit to a scene by HIGHLIGHTING THE CONTRAST IN TONE.
Initially, BATHOS is used to create a SERIOUS and POWERFUL DRAMATIC SITUATION, which might be slightly hard for the comedy writers. So, a comedy writer might try to insert jokes here and there in the middle of a serious scene but it is not wise to do so. It eliminates the element of contrast from the prose by breaking the tempo of the serious scene. |
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PUN
Definition : |
A pun is a play on words in which a humorous effect is produced by using a word that suggests two or more meanings or by exploiting similar sounding words having different meanings.
Humorous effect created by puns depends upon the ambiguities words entail. The ambiguities arise mostly in homophones and homonyms. For instance, in a sentence “A happy life depends on a liver” liver can refer to the organ liver or simply the person who lives. Similarly, in a famous saying “Atheism is a non-prophet institution” the word “prophet” is used instead of “profit” to produce a humorous effect. |
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PUN
Common Examples of Pun: |
In everyday life, puns are intentionally or accidently used in jokes and witty remarks.
The life of a patient of hypertension is always at steak. Why do we still have troops in Germany? To keep the Russians in Czech. A horse is a very stable animal Time flies like an arrow. Fruit flies like a banana. An elephant’s opinion carries a lot of weight. What is the difference between a conductor and a teacher? The conductor minds the train and a teacher trains the mind. |
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PUN
Example of Pun in Literature: |
In constructing puns, William Shakespeare was a master craftsman. We find many examples of puns in his plays. Let us have a look at some of them:
“It is the unkindest tied that ever any man tied.”(Richard III) “winter of our discontent…made glorious summer by this Son of York.”(Richard III) Romeo: “Not I, believe me. You have dancing shoes with nimble soles; I have a soul of lead” (Romeo and Juliet) Claudius: “…But now, my cousin Hamlet, and my son…” Hamlet: [aside] “A little more than kin, and less than kind. (Kindred)” (Hamlet) |
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PUN
Example of Pun in Literature: |
We notice John Donne use pun in his poem “A Hymn to God the Father”. Read the following lines:
“When Thou hast done, Thou hast not done for I have more. That at my death Thy Son / Shall shine as he shines now, and heretofore And having done that, Thou hast done; I fear no more.” He is playing with his name Donne and with the name of his wife Anne More. Besides, he uses Son, referring to the Christ, instead of sun. |
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PUN
Example of Pun in Literature: |
Oscar Wilde employs pun in his play “Importance of being Earnest”. Jack Earnest tells Aunt Augusta in Act III:
“On the contrary, Aunt Augusta, I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest” Similarly, in Act III we see Jack puns his family name again: “I always told you, Gwendolen, my name was Ernest, didn’t I? Well, it is Ernest after all. I mean it naturally is Ernest.” Here Jack discovers his father name which makes him truly earnest. |
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PUN
Example of Pun in Literature: |
Charles Dickens plays around with words in his novel “Great Expectations”. In his opening chapter “Pip” says:
“They seemed to think the opportunity lost, if they failed to point the conversation to me, every now and then, and stick the point into me” Not the pun in the use of the word “point”. We see another interesting example in Chapter 2: “Tickler was a wax-ended piece of cane, worn smooth by collision with my tickled frame.” The writer puns the word “tickle”. |
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PUN
Example of Pun in Literature: |
We notice a unique use of multilingual puns in Vladimir Nabokov’s “Lolita”. For example, the name of a character “Humbert” is a pun in two languages. In French it means “Shadow” and in Spanish it means “man”. Similarly, “Lolita” changing her name to “Dolores” which means pain in Latin and her nick name “Dolly” refers to a toy in English.
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PUN
Function of Pun: |
Apart from being WITTY and HUMOROUS, puns add PROFOUND MEANINGS to the texts and shapes the way in which the text is interpreted by the readers.
By PLAYING WITH THE WORDS, the writers reveal the cleverness of their characters and of course of their own. Besides, puns in a literary works act as a source of comic relief or an intentional effort on the part of the writer to show his / her creative ability in using language. |
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RHETORICAL QUESTIONS
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A rhetorical question is asked just for the effects or to lay emphasis on some point discussed when no real answer is expected. A rhetorical question may have an obvious answer but the questioner asks rhetorical questions to lay emphasis on the point. In literature, a rhetorical question is self-evident and used for style as an impressive persuasive device.
Broadly speaking, a rhetorical question is asked when the questioner himself knows the answer already or the answer is not actually demanded. So, an answer is not expected from the audience. Such a question is used to emphasize a point or draw the audience’s attention. |
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RHETORICAL QUESTIONS
Common Examples of Rhetorical Questions: |
Rhetorical questions, though almost needless or meaningless, seem a basic need of daily language. Some common examples of rhetorical questions from daily life are as follows.
“Who knows?” “Are you stupid?” “Did you hear me?” “Ok?” “Why not?” Mostly, it is easy to spot a rhetorical question because of its position in the sentence. It occurs immediately after the comment made and proves the opposite of it. The idea again is to make a point more prominent. Some examples are as follows but keep in mind that they are also called tag questions if used in everyday conversation. “It’s too hot today. Isn’t it?” “The actors played the roles well. Didn’t they?” |
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RHETORICAL QUESTIONS
Examples of Rhetorical Questions in Literature: |
Rhetorical questions in literature are as important as they are in daily language or perhaps even more. The reason is the significant change a rhetorical question can bring about. The absence or presence of a rhetorical question in some of the most famous lines in literature can change the impact altogether. Occasionally, in literature, a writer asks a rhetorical question and goes on answering it to produce desired effects.
A very good example of rhetorical questions in literature is from Shakespeare’s “Romeo and Juliet”. Have a look and feel the difference the absence of the two rhetorical questions could have made. JULIET: “Thou art thyself, though not a Montague. Montague? It is nor hand, nor foot, Nor arm, nor face, nor any other part Belonging to a man. O, be some other name! What’s in a name? That which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet.” You must have heard the famous line “What’s in a name?” It’s also become a famous proverb in English. The rhetorical question holds integral value in multiplying the power of the dialogue. |
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RHETORICAL QUESTIONS
Examples of Rhetorical Questions in Literature: |
Percy Bysshe Shelley ends his masterpiece “Ode to the West Wind” with a rhetorical question.
“O Wind, If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?” The poet achieves the desired effect by asking this rhetorical question instead of making a statement. The answer to this question is not sought, rather an effect is successfully created giving a fine finishing touch to the ode. |
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RHETORICAL QUESTIONS
Examples of Rhetorical Questions in Literature: |
Mrs. Hladia Porter Stewart in her poem “Creation” employs rhetorical questions to create effect and achieve the desired appeal of the poem.
“What made you think of love and tears And birth and death and pain?” Without rhetorical questions in the poem, it could be impossible for the poetess to express herself as impressively as she does using rhetorical questions. |
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RHETORICAL QUESTIONS
Examples of Rhetorical Questions in Literature: |
The clarifying aspect of the poem “The Solitary Reaper” by William Wordsworth enhances with the use of a rhetorical question.
“Will no one tell me what she sings?” Notice, the answer is not expected to this question. The poet prefers a rhetorical question to a plain statement to emphasize his feelings of pleasant surprise. |
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RHETORICAL QUESTIONS
Examples of Rhetorical Questions in Literature: |
“The Merchant of Venice” by Shakespeare also has the effective use of rhetorical questions. Following are some of the most famous rhetorical questions by Shylock in the play.
Shylock: “If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh? If you poison us, do we not die? And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge?” The questions don’t necessarily need an answer. They are neither questions nor plain statements rather something in between the two extremes. |
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RHETORICAL QUESTIONS
Function of a Rhetorical Question: |
Writers employ rhetorical questions for rhetorical effects and we cannot easily condone the impact rendered by a rhetorical question. The idea becomes all the more powerful, and our interest is aroused to read and enjoy the technical and aesthetic beauty a rhetorical question generates. Moreover, it is a requirement in persuasive speeches.
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SYNECDOCHE
Definition: |
Synecdoche is a literary device in which a part of something represents the whole or it may use a whole to represent a part.
Synecdoche may also use larger groups to refer to smaller groups or vice versa. It may also call a thing by the name of the material, it is made of or it may refer to a thing in a container or packing by the name of that container or packing. |
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SYNECDOCHE
Difference between Synecdoche and Metonymy: |
SYNECDOCHE is often confused with another literary device called metonymy.
Both may resemble each other to some extent but are not the same. SYNECDOCHE refers to a whole of a thing by the name of any one of its parts. For example, calling a car “wheels” is a SYNECDOCHE because a part of a car “wheels” stands for the whole car. However, in METONYMY, the word we use to describe another thing is closely linked to that particular thing, but is not necessarily a part of it. For example, “crown” that refers to power or authority is a metonymy used to replace the king or the queen. |
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SYNECDOCHE
Examples of Synecdoche from Everyday Life: |
The word “bread” refers to food or money as in “Writing is my bread and butter” or “sole breadwinner”.
The phrase “gray beard” refers to an old man. The word “sails” refers to a whole Ship. The word “suits” refers to businessmen. The word “boots” refers to soldiers. The term “coke” is a common synecdoche for all carbonated drinks. “Pentagon” is a synecdoche when it refers to the few decision makers. The word “glasses” refers to spectacles. “Coppers” often refers to coins. |
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SYNECDOCHE
Examples of Synecdoche in Literature: |
Coleridge employs synecdoche in his poem “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner”:
“The western wave was all a-flame. The day was well was nigh done! Almost upon the western wave Rested the broad bright Sun” The “western wave” is a synecdoche as it refers to the see by the name of its part i.e. wave. |
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SYNECDOCHE
Examples of Synecdoche in Literature: |
Look at the use of synecdoche in the lines taken from Shakespeare’s Sonnet 116:
“O no! It is an ever-fixed mark That looks on tempests and is never shaken.” The phrase “ever-fixed mark” refers to a lighthouse. |
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SYNECDOCHE
Examples of Synecdoche in Literature: |
Look how Shelly uses synecdoche in his poem “Ozymandias”:
“Tell that its sculptor well those passions read Which yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things, The hand that mocked them.” “The hand” in the above lines refers to the sculptor who carved the “lifeless things” into a grand statue. |
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SYNECDOCHE
Examples of Synecdoche in Literature: |
Observe the use of synecdoche in the following lines from “The Secret Sharer” by Joseph Conrad:
“At midnight I went on deck, and to my mate’s great surprise put the ship round on the other tack. His terrible whiskers flitted round me in silent criticism.” The word “whiskers” mentioned in the above lines refers to the whole face of the narrator’s mate. |
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SYNECDOCHE
Examples of Synecdoche in Literature: |
Jonathon Swift in “The description of the Morning” uses synecdoche:
“Prepar’d to scrub the entry and the stairs. The youth with broomy stumps began to trace.” In the above lines the phrase “broomy stumps” refers to the whole broom. |
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SYNECDOCHE
Examples of Synecdoche in Literature: |
Note the use of synecdoche in “The Lady or the Tiger?” by Frank R. Stockton:
“His eye met hers as she sat there paler and whiter than anyone in the vast ocean of anxious faces about her.” “Faces” refers to the whole persons. |
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SYNECDOCHE
FUNCTION: |
Literary symbolism is developed by the writers who employ synecdoche in their literary works. By using synecdoche, the writers give the otherwise common ideas and objects deeper meanings and thus drawing readers’ attention.
Furthermore, the use of synecdoche helps writers to achieve brevity. For instance, saying “Soldiers were equipped with steel” is more concise than saying “The soldiers were equipped with swords, knives, daggers, arrows etc.” Like any other literary device, synecdoche when used appropriately adds a distinct color to words making them appear vivid. To insert this “life” factor to the literary works, writers describe simple ordinary things creatively with the aid of this literary device. |
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METONYMY
Definition : |
It is a figure of speech that takes the place of the name of a thing with the name of something else with which it is closely associated
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METONYMY
Metonymy, Synecdoche and Metaphor: |
METONYMY is often confused with another figure of speech called SYNECDOCHE. Both resemble to each other but are not the same. SYNECDOCHE refers to a thing by the name of one of its parts. For example, calling a car “a wheel” is a SENECDOCHE.
A part of a car i.e. “a wheel” stands for the whole car. In METONYMY, on the other hand, the word we use to describe another thing is closely linked to that particular thing, but is not a part of it. For example, “Crown” which means power or authority is a METONYMY. METONYMY is different from a metaphor. A METAPHOR draws resemblance between two different things as in “Her face shines like a sun.” Face and sun are two different things without any association but it attempts to describe one thing in terms of another based on a supposed similarity. METONYMY, however, develops relation on the grounds of close associations as in “The White House is concerned about terrorism.” The White House here represents the people who work in it. |
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METONYMY
Examples of Metonymy in Everyday Life: |
England decides to keep check on immigration. (England refers to the government.)
The suits were at meeting. (The suits stand for businesspersons.) Pen is mightier than sword. (Pen refers to written words and sword to military force.) The Oval Office was busy in work. (“The Oval Office” is metonymy as it stands for people at work in the office.) Let me give you a hand. (Hand means help.) |
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METONYMY
Examples of Metonymy in Literature: |
The given lines are from Shakespeare’s “Julies Caesar” Act I.
“Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.” Mark Anthony uses “ears” to say that he wants the people present there to listen to him attentively. It is metonymy because the word “ears” replaces the concept of attention. |
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METONYMY
Examples of Metonymy in Literature: |
This line is from Margaret Mitchell’s novel “Gone with the Wind”.
“I’m mighty glad Georgia waited till after Christmas before it secedes or it would have ruined the Christmas parties.” Scarlett uses “Georgia” to point out everything that makes up the state: citizens, politician, government etc. It is a metonymy extremely common in the modern world, where a name of a country or state refers to a whole nation and its government. Thus, it renders brevity to the ideas. |
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METONYMY
Examples of Metonymy in Literature: |
These lines are taken from “Out, Out” by Robert Frost.
“As he swung toward them holding up the hand Half in appeal, but half as if to keep The life from spilling” In these lines, the expression “The life from spilling” is a metonymy that refers to spilling of blood. It develops a link between life and blood. The loss of too much blood means loss of life. |
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METONYMY
Examples of Metonymy in Literature: |
These lines are from the poem “Yet Do I Marvel”.
“The little buried mole continues blind, Why flesh that mirror Him must someday die,” Countee Cullen uses “flesh” to represent human and questions God why we have to die when we are created in His likeness. |
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METONYMY
Examples of Metonymy in Literature: |
These lines are from Lycidas written by John Milton.
“But now my oat proceeds, And listens to the herald of the sea That came in Neptune’s plea, He asked the waves, and asked the felon winds, What hard mishap hath doomed this gentle swain?” In the above mentioned lines, John Milton uses “oat” for a musical instrument made out of an oak-stalk. Thus, “oat” represents the song that the poet is composing next to the ocean. |
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METONYMY
FUNCTION: |
Generally, metonymy is used in developing literary symbolism i.e. it gives more profound meanings to otherwise common ideas and objects. By using metonymy, texts exhibit deeper or hidden meanings and thus drawing readers’ attention. In addition, the use of metonymy helps achieve conciseness. For instance, “Rifles were guarding the gate” is more concise than “The guards with rifles in their hands were guarding the gate.”
Furthermore, metonymy, like other literary devices, is employed to add a poetic color to words to make them come to life. The simple ordinary things are described in a creative to insert this “life” factor to the literary works. |
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MALAPROPISM
DEFINITION: |
Malapropism, from French mal a propos (INAPPROPRIATE), is a use of an incorrect word in place of a similar sounding word that results in a nonsensical and humorous expression.
The word malapropism comes from “Mrs. Malaprop”, a character in Sheridan’s comedy “The Rivals”, who has a habit of replacing words with incorrect and absurd utterances producing a humorous effect. A mis-speech is considered malapropism when it sounds similar to the word it replaces but has an entirely different meanings. For instance, replacing acute by obtuse is not a malapropism because both words have a contrasting meanings but do not sound similar. Using obtuse for abstruse, on the other hand, is a malapropism, as there is a difference in meanings and both words sound similar. These characteristics makes malapropism different from other errors in speech such as eggcorns and spoonerism. |
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MALAPROPISM
Common Examples of Malapropism: |
Malapropism is a common phenomenon in our daily life. We find some hilarious examples being quoted in the media.
1. New Scientist, a magazine, reports one of its employees calling his colleague “a suppository (i.e. repository) of knowledge”. The magazine further reports the worker apologized for his “Miss Marple- ism (i.e. Malapropism)”. 2. Richard J. Daley, the former mayor of Chicago, is said to have called “tandem bicycle” as “tantrum bicycle” and also have incorrectly used “Alcoholics Unanimous” instead of “Alcoholics Anonymous”. 3. Bertie Ahern, the former Irish taoiseach, is said to have given a warning to his country against “upsetting the apple tart (i.e., apple cart) of his country’s economic success”. |
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MALAPROPISM
Common Malapropism Examples: |
Cheer up; I predicate (predict) final victory.
His capacity for hard liquor is incredulous (incredible). This does not portend (pretend) to be a great work of art. Fortuitously (fortunately) for her, she won the sweepstakes. |
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MALAPROPISM
Examples of malapropism from Literature: |
In literature, malapropism is employed to create humorous effects. Let us look at some examples of malapropism in literature.
In the “Rivals”, Sheridan introduces a character “Mrs. Malaprop” who habitually uses words which mean quite the opposite, having similar sounds to the words she replaces with. It becomes a great source of humorous effect in the play. For example in Act III Scene 3, she tells Captain Absolute: “Sure, if I reprehend anything in this world it is the use of my oracular tongue, and a nice derangement of epitaphs!” In the above passage, she comically replaces apprehend by reprehend, vernacular by oracular, arrangement by derangement and epithets by epitaph. Some other funny instances of malapropism in the same play are “illiterate (i.e. obliterate) him quite from your memory” and “she’s as headstrong as an allegory (alligator).” |
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MALAPROPISM
Examples of malapropism from Literature: |
William Shakespeare uses malapropism in his plays as well. Look at the following example of malapropism uttered by Constable Dogberry in Act III Scene 5 of “Much Ado About Nothing”:
“Our watch, sir, have indeed comprehended two auspicious persons.” Notice the use of comprehended for apprehended and auspicious for suspicious. Similarly, an instance of malapropism can be observed in Act I, Scene 3 of “Twelfth Night”. Sir Toby Belch says: “By this hand, they are scoundrels and subtractors that say so of him. Who are they?” The malapropism here is “subtractors,” which should have been “detractors.” Yet another example comes from the same character in Act I Scene 5 of the same play: OLIVIA: Cousin, cousin, how have you come so early by this lethargy? SIR TOBY BELCH: Lechery! I defy lechery. Here, the use of “lechery” instead of “lethargy” is a malapropism. |
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MALAPROPISM
Examples of malapropism from Literature: |
In chapter 33 of Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn, Aunt Sally can be spotted for the use of malapropism. She says:
“I was most putrified with astonishment,” Here, the use of the word putrified is malapropism and it seems she was thinking of petrified. |
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MALAPROPISM
Function of Malapropism: |
Although it is considered an error in speech, malapropism is a great source of humor in both everyday life as well as literature.
In daily life, malapropisms are often unintentional but writers introduce malapropism in their literary works intentionally to produce comic effects. It ensures attention of the readers, as it inserts element of interest in a literary piece. This is the reason why the characters using hilarious malapropisms are often well-known. |
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SPOONERISM
EXAMPLES: |
Spoonerisms are words or phrases in which letters or syllables get swapped. This often happens accidentally in slips of the tongue (or tips of the slung as Spoonerisms are often affectionately called!):
Tease my ears (Ease my tears) A lack of pies (A pack of lies) It's roaring with pain (It's pouring with rain) Wave the sails (Save the whales) |
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SPOONERISM
EXAMPLES |
Chipping the flannel
At the lead of spite Hiss and lear Go and shake a tower |
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RED HERRING
DEFINITION: |
Red herring is a kind of FALLACY that is an IRRELEVANT TOPIC introduced in an argument to DIVERT THE ATTENTION of listeners or readers from the original issue.
In literature, this fallacy is often used in DETECTIVE or SUSPENSE NOVELS to MISLEAD readers or characters to false conclusions. Let us consider a simple example of red herring. A teacher catches a student cheating during a test. The student in response says, “I know I’ve made a mistake. But think of my parents. They’re going to kill me”. The student uses red herring in his response. He tries to appeal to pity to distract his teacher from the real issue. The term red herring means a kind of dried red fish, which has a pungent smell. In fox hunting sport, hounds are prevented from catching the fox by distracting them with the strong scent of red herring. Similarly, a person can be stopped from proving his point in an argument by distracting him to an irrelevant issue. |
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RED HERRING
Common Example of Red Herring: |
Mother: It’s bedtime Jane
Jane: Mom, how do ants feed their babies? Mother: Don’t know dear. Close your eyes now. Jane: But mama, do ant babies cry when hungry? This conversation shows how a child tries to distract her mother so that she [Jane] could stay awake a little longer. There is a lot of commotion regarding saving environment. We cannot make this world an Eden. What will happen if it does become Eden? Adam and Eve got bored there! The idea of Adam and Eve getting bored in Eden throws the listeners off the real issue of environment. |
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RED HERRING
Examples of Red Herring in Literature: |
The character of “Bishop Aringarosa” in Dan Brown’s novel “Da Vinci Code” serves as an example of red herring throughout the novel. The character is presented in such a way that the readers suspect him to be the mastermind of the whole conspiracy in the church. Later it was revealed that he was innocent. This example of red herring in the novel distracts the readers from who the real bad person is and thus, adding to the mystery of the story. Interestingly, the Italian surname of the bishop “Aringarosa” translates in English as “red herring”.
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RED HERRING
Examples of Red Herring in Literature: |
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s “Sherlock Holmes: Hound of the Baskervilles” presents a classic example of red herring. The readers are thrown off the real murderer and start suspecting the escaped “convict” and “Barrymore”. In the end, however, the mystery is resolved by the unexpected confession of “Beryl” that her husband “Stapleton” was the real culprit and was behind the whole mystery of the killer “Hound”.
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RED HERRING
Examples of Red Herring in Literature: |
We observe the killer planting false clues and providing red herrings in Charlotte Macleod’s “The Withdrawing Room”. “Augustus Quiffen”, a lodger at Sarah’s Brownstone home, is killed falling under the train. Seemingly, it was an accident until “Mary Smith” tells “Sarah” that it is a murder but she cannot identity the murderer. “Sarah” and “Max Bittersohn” investigate the matter and find that the killer has planned the death beforehand and that he was well-prepared to conceal it with a convincing red herring.
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RED HERRING
FUNCTION: |
Red herring is a common device used in mystery and thriller stories to distract the reader from identifying the real culprit.
The red herring in a story can take the form of characters that the reader suspect, but who turns out be innocent when the real murderer is identified. It aims at keeping the readers guessing at the possibilities until the end and therefore keeps him interested in the story. The readers enjoy solving the mysteries created by red herrings in the story. Undoubtedly, it would be difficult to attract the reader’s interest, if thrillers expose the killer from the start. Moreover, for politicians red herring comes handy as they use it frequently to dodge difficult query in a discussion or an argument. They do it by referring to a different issue, which of course is irrelevant, to sidetrack the original issue under discussion. |
