Exam 3

Front 1

sterilization

Back 1

destruction of all microbes, does not include things like prions

Front 2

commercial sterilization

Back 2

sterilization that is applied specifically to things like foods, targets microbes like Clostridium botulinum spores

Front 3

disinfection

Back 3

killing most, but not all pathogens

Front 4

antisepsis

Back 4

disinfection of living tissue

Front 5

sepsis

Back 5

bacterial contamination of living tissue

Front 6

degerming

Back 6

physically removing things, like wiping with an alcohol wipe

Front 7

sanitization

Back 7

lower microbe levels

Front 8

-cide

Back 8

to kill

Front 9

-static, -stasis

Back 9

unchanging, keeping microbes from multiplying

Front 10

-emia

Back 10

of or in the blood

Front 11

-uria

Back 11

of or in the urine

Front 12

autoclave

Back 12

device that uses steam under pressure to sterilize materials

Front 13

retort

Back 13

a container or furnace for carrying out a chemical process on a large or industrial scale

Front 14

low temperature for microbial control

Back 14

more often bacteriastatic than bacteriacidal, sometimes slow freezing works to get crystals to form inside cells, killing them

Front 15

desiccation for microbial control

Back 15

pulls water out of cells via osmosis, killing them or reducing their ability to reproduce

Front 16

ionizing radiation for microbial control

Back 16

uses things like gamma rays and electron beams to sterilize medical equipment, food, etc by damaging the cell's DNA

Front 17

Lysol

Back 17

a phenol/phenolic. disrupts the membranes of cells

Front 18

iodine

Back 18

a halogen. works on proteins, inhibits enzymes or denatures proteins

Front 19

chlorine

Back 19

a halogen. becomes HOCl (hydrochloric acid) when it comes in contact with water. works on proteins, inhibits enzymes or denatures proteins

Front 20

alcohol

Back 20

disrupts proteins and lipids. most effective is 70% isoproponal alcohol because the denaturation of proteins works better in the presence of some water

Front 21

heavy metals

Back 21

denatures proteins, inhibits enzymes

Front 22

surfactant

Back 22

work as emulsifiers, make big blobs of fat into little blobs of fat. make it easier to physically wash things off

Front 23

quaternary ammonium compounds

Back 23

break down membranes, emulsify. work on fungi, amoeba

Front 24

aldehydes

Back 24

alkylate proteins and nucleic acids

Front 25

peroxygens

Back 25

oxidize proteins

Front 26

ozone O3

Back 26

oxidize proteins

Front 27

pathology

Back 27

study of disease

Front 28

virulence

Back 28

strength, intensity

Front 29

etiology

Back 29

cause, source

Front 30

contamination

Back 30

organisms are present

Front 31

infection

Back 31

contamination in the body

Front 32

resident microbiota

Back 32

usually present, more likely to be harmless

Front 33

transient microbiota

Back 33

picked up from the environment, sometimes present

Front 34

parasitism

Back 34

symbiosis where one benefits and one is harmed

Front 35

commensalism

Back 35

symbiosis where one benefits and one is unaffected, example skin mites

Front 36

mutualism

Back 36

symbiosis where both benefit, example E. coli in our intestines

Front 37

opportunistic pathogen

Back 37

will not cause a problem until the opportunity arises, such as resident microbiota are killed off and they are able to take hold

Front 38

microbial antagonism

Back 38

competitive exclusion, resident microbiota keep out pathogens by competing for space and resources or by physically killing them

Front 39

synergism

Back 39

one enhances/enables another, the sum of the two is greater when together than when separate

Front 40

symptom

Back 40

something that the patient is aware of and can feel, example itching

Front 41

sign

Back 41

something someone else can be aware of, example rash

Front 42

syndrome

Back 42

combination of signs and symptoms seen together

Front 43

sequela

Back 43

lasting effects from a disease, example paralysis after polio infection

Front 44

communicable

Back 44

spreads from person to person, propegated

Front 45

noncommunicable

Back 45

doesn't spread from person to person, but by other means, common source

Front 46

contagious

Back 46

highly communicable

Front 47

incidence

Back 47

number of new cases

Front 48

prevalence

Back 48

how many people have the diease at one time

Front 49

sporadic

Back 49

occurs occasionally

Front 50

endemic

Back 50

always present at least at low levels

Front 51

epidemic

Back 51

sudden, rapid increase in cases

Front 52

pandemic

Back 52

world wide epidemic

Front 53

herd immunity

Back 53

cannot spread through a population because so many are immune that if a single person is infected it is unlikely to spread

Front 54

isolation

Back 54

the person who has the disease is kept away from others

Front 55

quarantine

Back 55

those who have been exposed to and might have the disease are kept away from others

Front 56

acute

Back 56

short and intense

Front 57

chronic

Back 57

longer lasting, maybe not as intense, comes and goes

Front 58

latent

Back 58

periods of time with no signs or symptoms and pathogen is not found in the blood, dormant

Front 59

local infection

Back 59

confined to one area, close to where the pathogen entered the body

Front 60

systemic infection

Back 60

widespread throughout the body

Front 61

focal infection

Back 61

confined to one or a few areas, but not necessarily where it entered the body

Front 62

primary infection

Back 62

the first infection

Front 63

secondary infection

Back 63

second infection that is caused or enabled by the primary infection

Front 64

superinfection

Back 64

normal microbes have been wiped out and there is an "open field" for pathogens, example C. diff

Front 65

zoonosis

Back 65

a disease normally found in other species, but that humans can get

Front 66

fomite

Back 66

an inanimate object, such as a drinking cup, that can serve to transmit disease

Front 67

nosocomial

Back 67

acquired at a hospital

Front 68

iatrogenic

Back 68

caused by medical care

Front 69

cohort

Back 69

a population with a known exposure to a specific risk factor that is followed over time in a prospective study

Front 70

placebo

Back 70

a mock drug, looks and tastes like the experimental drug but has no medicinal value

Front 71

CDC

Back 71

Centers for Disease Control, based in Atlanta, Georgia. put out the morbidity and mortality weekly report, a list of number of people who are infected with and have died from certain diseases

Front 72

WHO

Back 72

World Health Organization, Geneva

Front 73

MSF

Back 73

Doctors Without Borders

Front 74

notifiable disease

Back 74

group of diseases that are reported to the CDC by individual states. typically of relatively high incidence or otherwise a potential danger to public health

Front 75

common-source epidemic

Back 75

an epidemic disease not spread from person to person, but by other means

Front 76

propagated epidemic

Back 76

an epidemic disease spread person to person

Front 77

stages in the progression of a disease

Back 77

1. incubation stage

2. prodromal stage

3. illness stage

4. decline stage

5. convalescence stage

Front 78

incubation stage

Back 78

from the point of first infection until first signs and symptoms

Front 79

prodromal stage

Back 79

signs and symptoms are mild

Front 80

illness stage

Back 80

signs and symptoms become more severe, the disease reaches its peak

Front 81

decline stage

Back 81

the patient is in recovery, signs and symptoms are lessening

Front 82

convalescence stage

Back 82

recovery stage where the infection is gone and the patient is getting better

Front 83

fulminating disease

Back 83

a disease that skips the prodromal stage, goes from incubation to illness stage. example food poisoning

Front 84

portal of entry

Back 84

how the pathogen enters the host

Front 85

leukocidins

Back 85

bacteria produce to kill white blood cells

Front 86

hemolysins

Back 86

bacteria produce to break down red blood cells and obtain iron

Front 87

coagulases

Back 87

bacteria produce to cause clotting

Front 88

kinases

Back 88

bacteria produce to break up blood clots

Front 89

hyaluronidases

Back 89

bacteria produce to break down proteins in connective tissue

Front 90

collagenases

Back 90

bacteria produce to break down proteins in connective tissue

Front 91

hypothermic factors

Back 91

bacteria produce to prevent fever as a nonspecific defense

Front 92

lecithinases

Back 92

bacteria produce to break down lecithin, a lipid found in cell membranes, particularly in RBCs

Front 93

proteases

Back 93

bacteria produce to break down proteins

Front 94

siderophores

Back 94

bacteria produce to gather up iron

Front 95

how does the bacteria manipulate the host's antigen-sampling system?

Back 95

macrophages break down cells, save the antigens, and present them to immune cells like helper T cells. this can be manipulated so bacteria can sneak into the immune system by being passed on instead of destroyed by the immune cells.

Front 96

exotoxin

Back 96

mostly produced by gram positive bacteria. they are mostly proteins and act as good antigens that the host cell can recognize and form antibodies to. they act in a variety of ways such as blocking pathways in the nervous system, releasing toxins that cause rashes or creates pseudomembranes, or reducing cells' ability to hold water causing diarrhea

Front 97

endotoxin

Back 97

contained within the bacteria, are exclusively found on the outer membrane of gram negative bacteria. lipopolysaccharide (LPS) A. they are poor antigens, the host does not readily form antibodies. there is little variety in symptoms, the reaction is usually based on the amount present. fever is a common reaction.

Front 98

cytopathic effects of viruses

Back 98

stop macromolecule synthesis, the cell cannot do its own maintenance.

cell membranes cannot be maintained. in lysosomes, this causes the release of digestive lysozymes.

fills the cell with inclusion bodies full of virus parts.

causes aggregation of cells and syncytium formation where the cells fuse together and form a nonfunctional multinucleated cell.

change function relative to other cells, like communication via proteins.

Front 99

how can viruses cause cancer?

Back 99

chromosomal changes in oncogenes, genes that code for proteins that tell the cell when and when not to divide. the raw materials are not there so the genes are built wrong.

loss of contact inhibition, where cells normally stop multiplying when they become crowded.

Front 100

pathological effects of fungi

Back 100

digestive enzymes are released, eat body cells for nutrients.

prevent host protein synthesis, interferes with antibody production.

release allergens.

act as carcinogens.

release neurotoxins.

Front 101

pathological effects of helminthes

Back 101

release digestive enzymes.

block passages.

burrow through tissue, visceral larval migrans.

produce toxic waste and become toxic waste when they die.

eat the host's food.

Front 102

poisonous algae generally release what kind of toxins?

Back 102

neurotoxins

Front 103

eukaryotic parasite infection difficulty

Back 103

similar to our own cells, harder to design something without side effects

Front 104

intracellular bacterial infection difficulty

Back 104

since it is inside the cell, the drug has to get through the barrier of the cell membrane

Front 105

viral infection difficulty

Back 105

they are intracellular and become part of the cell, have to find a way to contain the infection as opposed to destroying the virus

Front 106

therapeutic index

Back 106

lowest toxic dose divided by the typical therapeutic dose.

want this number to be high

Front 107

why don't drugs which inhibit bacterial protein synthesis also inhibit the host's protein synthesis?

Back 107

bacterial ribosomes differ from human ribosomes. this would only possibly have an effect on mitochondrial ribosomes which are the same as bacterial.

drugs target a protein synthesis that humans do not have, like folate for folic acid synthesis.

Front 108

bacitracin

Back 108

cell wall synthesis inhibitor.

gram positive bacteria

Front 109

cephalosporin

Back 109

cell wall synthesis inhibitor.

gram negative bacteria, resistant to penicillinase, has a broader spectrum

Front 110

chloramphenicol

Back 110

protein synthesis inhibitor, keeps ribosomes from coming together.

broad spectrum, can suppress bone marrow activity, so must be careful about anemia.

Front 111

penicillin

Back 111

cell wall synthesis inhibitor.

naturally occurring works exclusively on gram positive bacteria. synthetic can work on gram negative.

Front 112

polymixin B

Back 112

damages plasma membrane.

gram negative bacteria.

Front 113

quinolines

Back 113

inhibit nucleic acid synthesis.

easily get into tissues, stops DNA replication by stopping the DNA from coming apart. can inhibit cartilage development, careful in pregnant women and children.

Front 114

streptomycin

Back 114

protein synthesis inhibitor. keeps ribosomes from coming together.

Front 115

sulfa drugs

Back 115

enzyme inhibitors.

stops the synthesis of folic acid.

Front 116

tetracycline

Back 116

protein synthesis inhibitor.

broad spectrum. easily enters cells, widely used. concern for abx resistance.

Front 117

vancomycin

Back 117

inhibits cell wall synthesis.

used for MRSA. can cause damage to blood vessels.

Front 118

imidazoles

Back 118

anti-fungal that stop sterol synthesis, destroying and keeping the fungi cell membrane from being made

Front 119

griseofulvin

Back 119

anti-fungal that stops mitosis, cell division

Front 120

flucytosine

Back 120

anti-fungal that is anti-nucleic acid synthesis. stops DNA and RNA, stopping reproduction and protein synthesis.

Front 121

amantadine

Back 121

antiviral that keeps the virus from getting into the cell or causes uncoating of the virus if it does get into the cell.

Front 122

acyclovir

Back 122

antiviral that is a nucleoside analog, gives the virus raw materials that do not work. guanosine analog. used for herpes.

Front 123

gancyclovir

Back 123

antiviral that is a nucleoside analog, gives the virus raw materials that do not work. guanosine analog. used for HIV.

Front 124

zyclovadine (AZT)

Back 124

antiviral that is an enzyme inhibitor. inhibits reverstranscriptase in HIV.

Front 125

nevirapine

Back 125

antiviral that is an enzyme inhibitor. inhibits reversetranscriptase.

Front 126

tamiflu

Back 126

antiviral that targets the N spike, keeping the virus from exiting the cell.

Front 127

choloroquine

Back 127

antimalarial, targets Plasmodium sp.

Front 128

quinacrine

Back 128

anti-giardia

Front 129

praziquantel

Back 129

antiplatyhemlminthic

Front 130

mebandazole

Back 130

antinematodal

Front 131

pyrimethamine

Back 131

anti-toxoplasma and antimalarial

Front 132

artemisinin

Back 132

antimalarial

Front 133

ways in which a microbe may be resistant to an antibiotic

Back 133

the microbe destroys the drug, example penicillinase.

rapid efflux of the drug where the drug is pumped right out of the cell.

preventing entry of the drug into the cell or from reaching the target.

changing or eliminating the drug's target.

producing more of the target, overwhelming the drug.

invading new areas of the host where the drug does not go or target.

Front 134

circumstances which may increase the incidence of antibiotic resistance

Back 134

overuse by physicians, broad spectrum drugs.

inappropriate patient demand.

failure to complete treatment.

non-prescribed use.

long term, low dose treatment.

use in food for livestock, chicken and cattle.

movement due to human travel or trade.

use by immunosuppressd patients.

Front 135

skin

Back 135

mechanical/physical nonspecific defense.

dry - discourages microbial growth. slightly acidic. contains keratin, a toughening protein. cells are tightly packed. contain Langherhans cells in the deeper layers that are phagocytic.

Front 136

mucous membranes

Back 136

mechanical/physical nonspecific defense.

mucus traps microbes. contains defensin, a protein that can poke holes in microbial cells.

Front 137

sebum

Back 137

chemical nonspecific defense.

traps microbes. cuts off oxygen supply. slightly acidic.

Front 138

lysozymes

Back 138

chemical nonspecific defense.

digestive enzymes that are also in secretions such as tears, saliva, and sweat.

Front 139

gastric juice

Back 139

chemical nonspecific defense.

HCl and pepsin, a protease. greet incoming microbes with an acid bath.

Front 140

transferrin

Back 140

chemical nonspecific defense.

in the blood, ties up iron to keep away from bacteria. works against siderophores.

Front 141

fever

Back 141

prostaglandins work on temperature center in hypothalamus.

causes leukocytes to be more active. interferes with microbial proteins. makes iron less available.

Front 142

inflammation

Back 142

vasodilation, as vessels widen, fluid leaks out into surrounding tissue.

pressure keeps damage local. allows immune cells to get into tissue.

Front 143

defensin

Back 143

a protein that pokes holes in microbial cells

Front 144

opsonization

Back 144

the complement makes it easier for the phagocyte to attach

Front 145

cytolysis

Back 145

the complement forms pores in the microbe, causing it to lyse by either having fluid leak out of or into the cell

Front 146

alpha and beta interferon

Back 146

released by virally infected cells, causing nearby cells to create antiviral proteins. also can double back onto the cell to cause apoptosis.

Front 147

erythrocytes

Back 147

red blood cells, important in oxygen transport, hemoglobin and iron

Front 148

platelets

Back 148

cell fragments that function in clotting

Front 149

eosinophils

Back 149

granulocytes

phagocytic, secrete toxins, antimacroparacitic

Front 150

basophils

Back 150

granulocytes

secrete histamine

Front 151

neutrophils

Back 151

granulocytes

phagocytic, usually first response to bacterial infection

Front 152

monocytes

Back 152

agranulocytes

large phagocytes, macrophages

Front 153

dendritic cells

Back 153

antigen presentin cells. take in antigens, process them, then present them on their cell surface for recognition by other immune cells

Front 154

lymphocytes

Back 154

agranulocytes

specific immunity. react to antigens. B-cells and T-cells

Front 155

vasodilation

Back 155

widening of blood vessels. important in inflammation. allows vessels to become leaky, causing pressure in the tissues and allowing leukocytes into the tissues.

Front 156

edema

Back 156

an excess of watery fluid collecting in the cavities or tissues of the body

Front 157

histamine

Back 157

a substance that plays a major role in many allergic reactions, dilating blood vessels and making the vessel walls abnormally permeable

Front 158

toll-like receptors and NOD receptors

Back 158

sometimes residual bodies are left over after a phagocyte engulfs and kills a cell. if the materials in the residual body are nonspecific, like peptidoglycan, they can activate NOD receptors inside the cell or toll-like receptors out of the cell that cause an increase in macrophage activity.

Front 159

active immunity

Back 159

the body creates antibodies against an antigen

Front 160

passive immunity

Back 160

antibodies are given, not created

Front 161

natural immunity

Back 161

antibodies are either created or acquired naturally, as a response to an antibody or passed from mother to child

Front 162

artificial immunity

Back 162

antibodies are either created or acquired in a nonnatural way, such as a response to antigens from a vaccine or antibodies injected in anti-serum

Front 163

antigen

Back 163

a foreign substance, usually a protein but sometimes a polysaccharide. recognized by the body as foreign

Front 164

antibody

Back 164

produced by B-cells to attach to antigen.

Y shaped, made of four chains, two heavy and two light. the variable regions of the chain are the antigen binding sites. the other side is called the stem and consists of the constant regions.

Front 165

IgG

Back 165

gamma globulin. most commonly found in blood serum, leaes the blood easily. goes after a variety of pathogens: viruses, bacteria, fungi..

Front 166

IgM

Back 166

a pentamer, stems link together. clumps antigens.

Front 167

IgA

Back 167

found in secretions: milk, saliva, tears. keeps antigens from sticking to anything.

Front 168

IgD

Back 168

on B-cells, a protein in the cell membrane. "membrane-bound antibody"

Front 169

IgE

Back 169

stem interacts with mast cells and basophils, leads to inflammation and histamine release. levels rise with allergies

Front 170

primary response

Back 170

the initial response to a pathogen. the response is slow and less intense. first IgM antibodies have a small spike, then shortly after IgG antibodies have a small spike.

during primary response, cells have to be activated to produce memory cells and active cells.

Front 171

seconday reponse

Back 171

rapid and intense response to second exposure to a pathogen. memory cells are already primed to respond and do not need to be activated. IgM antibodies have a small spike and IgG antibodies have a large spike.

Front 172

T-dependant antigen

Back 172

B-cell will only react to the antigen if stimulated by the helper T cell

Front 173

T-independant antigen

Back 173

B-cell can recognize the antigen on its own

Front 174

How does a B-cell respond to an antigen?

Back 174

when a B-cell encounters an antigen, it begins to divide into two types of cells. memory cells function to stand ready to recognize future infections and are full of membrane bound antibodies. plasma cells have a lot of rough ER, which synthesize antibodies. the cell will eventually self destroy via apoptosis.

Front 175

What are things that an antibody may do to an antigen?

Back 175

neutralize the antibody, interfering with its normal function

cause agglutination of antigens, making it easier for phagocytes to destroy them

activate complement

opsonization, makes it easier for the phagocyte to attach

antigen-dependent cell-mediated immunity, attracts T cells

antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity, attracts NK cells and phagocytic cells

Front 176

How does a helper T cell work?

Back 176

antigen presenting cells take in the bacteria, destroys them, and saves the antigens in a vessicle. the antigens are presented on the cell membrane, along with an MCH2 complex. the helper T cells (CD4) recognize the antigen and MHC and become activated to divide into memory cells and activated helper T cells. the activated helper T cells activate the B cells and attract phagocytes by releasing cytokines.

Front 177

Hoew doe a cytotoxic T cell work?

Back 177

a cytotoxic T cell recognizes the MHC1 complex and the associated foregin cell fragments (peptides) on infected cells. it divides into memory cells and active cytotoxic T cells. the active T cells release perforins that will poke holes in the membrane of the infected cell and lymphotoxins to kill the cell.

Front 178

regulatory (suppressor) T cells

Back 178

shut down the immune response, release cytokines

Front 179

natural killer cells

Back 179

probably a type of T cell. seem to recognize the absence of MHC proteins or an imbalance on the cell membrane. similar to cytotoxic T cell mechanism, perforins or lymphotoxins. can be set off by antibodies attached to antigens on body cells.

Front 180

vaccine

Back 180

a substance used to stimulate the production of antibodies and provide immunity against one or several diseases, prepared from the causative agent of a disease

Front 181

attenuated whole-agent

Back 181

alive, but weakened. should not be able to infect. MMR vaccine

Front 182

inactivated whole-agent

Back 182

dead or made unable to reproduce. salk polio vaccine

Front 183

toxoids

Back 183

an inactive tozins, denatured protein. intact enough to act as an antigen. tetanus shot.

Front 184

subunit vaccine

Back 184

pieces of the antigen. hepatitis B, pertussis

Front 185

conjugated vaccine

Back 185

antigen attached to a polysaccharide. seems to work better with children. Hib, H-influenza

Front 186

nucleic acid vaccine

Back 186

plasmid, a little loop of DNA with a gene for making the antigen. supposed to stimulat T cells. Japanese encephilitis. does not have to be refridgerated

Front 187

variolation

Back 187

deliberately being exposed to small pox in hopes to get a mild case and become immune

Front 188

adjuvant

Back 188

something added to a vaccine to make it work