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105 Cards in this Set
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Population ecology |
The study of the dynamics of a population and how populations interact with the environment |
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natural selection works on the individual level What is a population, community, ecosystem, biomes? |
population- all individuals of the same species living in the same area at the same time Community- all pop. within given area, scientists interested in HOW species interact Ecosystem- biotic and abiotic components of a location. Study flow of energy or matter(e.g. nitrogen cycle) Biomes- communities in diff. parts of the world. similar patterns of temp. and precipitation |
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Why is it important to understand population ecology? |
Population is driven by how we interact. Green House gases, how people affect populations, ways to understand how species interact in order to understand diff. species diseases- keep populations in check |
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What is population ecology? |
Study of the dynamics of a population |
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Will population grow or shrink in size? |
If birth and immigration exceeds death and emigration- the population will grow |
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Why is population ecology important? |
It is important for managing endangered species, controlling pest species, and predicting human population expansions |
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What are 5 population characteristics? |
1. Population size (N) - total number of individuals 2. Pop. density- total number of individs in a given area 3. Pop. Distributions- how pop.s occupy space. Clumped, even, random 4. Population sex ratio- most often 50:50 males:females. some species are not 5. Pop. age structure- how many individs fit into diff. age categories. Can predict how fast a pop. will grow. Important in managing fisheries |
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Factors that Influence Pop. Size Density Dependent factors influence? What is a limiting resource? |
-influences survival and reproduction, How much food is available. -a resource that a pop. cannot live w/out and occurs in quantities lower than the pop. requires to increase in size |
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More Kinds of Density-Dependent factors? for plants animals What is carrying capacity? |
Plants- water, nitrogen, and/or phosphorus are limited Animals- food, water, shelter,(nesting sites) Carrying Capacity(K) - environmental limit to the # of individs a system can support |
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What are Density independent factors? What are Population Growth models? |
-often unpredictable events, such as hurricanes, floods, fires, drought, volcanic eruptions, climate events. Ex: water fowl controlled by temperatures - Mathematical expressions to predict pop. size |
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What is a growth rate? What is Intrinsic growth rate? What is the Exponential growth model? |
- number of offspring minus death rate -max. growth rate of growth under un-limiting resource conditions -dn/dt=r*N where r= rate of growth, dN = change in number of individs, dt= change in time, N=number of individs |
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What is the logistic growth model? |
pop.s cannot undergo exponential growth indefinitely. Logistic growth has initial exponential growth, but slows as it approaches carrying capacity (K). Look at equation |
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What is a K-selected species? R-selected species? |
K-species= low growth rate, large organisms, late reproduction maternity, parental care, large mammals and most birds, hard to manage pop.s because of slow growth rates R-selected species- high growth rate, large # of offspring, often overshoot carrying capacity, mature early, reproduce frequently, little to no parental care, fish, insects, small mammals |
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What is community ecology? What is Competition? |
The study of interactions between more than one pop. competition is the struggle of individs to obtain a limiting resource |
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what is Liebig's law of the minimum? |
what ever resource is the least available, relative to its demand, will limit the expansion of the pop. |
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Competitive Exclusion Principle |
Two species competing for the same limiting resource, cannot coexist indefinitely |
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What is a Niche? |
The way of life of a species. Each species thought to have a seperate,, unique niche describing how an org. or pop. responds to the disruption of resources and competitors |
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What is the resource partitioning concept? |
When species divide a resource based on diff.s in species behavior or morphology. Natural selection favors niches that do not overlap w/ other species |
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What are some examples of resource partitioning in nature? |
Fish eating diffs kinds of algae plants- larger plants on top, small plants on bottom benefitting from light seeping in nesting habitat |
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Ways to reduce overlap in niches |
Temporal Resource Partitioning- Being active at diff periods of time. Examples: wolves and coyotes feeding during night or day. Spatial Resource partitioning - species using diff. areas of a system. Ex: desert plants where some species have shallow roots and other species w/ deep roots to reduce water competition Morphological Resource partition- Diff. in size or shape Ex: Darwin's finches, 14 species with diff size beaks to eat diff. foods |
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What is predation? What is a true predator? Can Bacteria, Fungi, or plants be predators? |
The use of one species as a resource by another species. organisms that kill and consume most of their prey. Ex: African lions Yes, venus fly trap, fungi |
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What are some defenses against predation? |
1.Behavioral- hiding or reduced movement 2. Morphological- camoflouge, spines 3. Chemical- toxic or distasteful 4. mimicry- mimicking something more dangerous than itself |
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what is a symbiotic relationship and what are the three diff. kinds? |
Two species living in close association with each other 1. Parasitism 2. Mutualism 3. Commensalism |
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What is a Parasite? What are Parasitoids? |
Organisms that live on or in another organism that they consume (host) Ex: tapeworm, ticks, plants Organisms that lay eggs inside other organisms. the larvae hatch and consume host from inside out ( kills host) Ex: some wasps and flies |
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What is mutualism? What is Commensalism? |
-Benefits 2 species by increasing both species' survival or reproductive success. e.g. plants and pollinators, acacia trees and ants, coral and algae. E.coli in our gut-pprocess vitamins for us, allow us to assimilate Commensalism- One species benefit but the other is neither harmed nor helped e.g. Birds using trees as perches, fish using coral to hide |
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What is a keystone species? |
A species whose loss can have a disproportionally large effect on the entire community 1. Typically exists in low numbers 2. Can be predators, sources of food, mutualistic species e.g. sea stars prey on mussels- when sea stars are removed mussels take over and out-compete 25 other bivalve species |
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What are trophic cascades and give example? |
-occur when predators in a food web suppress the abundance or alter the behavior of their prey, thereby releasing the next lower trophic level from predation (or herbivory if the intermediate trophic level is a herbivore). -killer whales- seals-seaotter-sea urchins-kelp forest |
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What is predator mediated Competition? What are ecological engineers? |
-When a predator increases competition of other species for resources -species that create or maintain habitat for other species. e.g. Beavers make ponds + wetlands, alligators make 'gator holes' new vegetation, seed shrimp, macroinvertebrates, fish |
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What is Ecological succession? what is primary succession? |
-predictable change of a group of species by another group- can take decades to centuries -Occurs on the surface that was initially devoid of soil-when organisms poulate an area for first time. lava formations or newly exposed rock from |
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What is a pioneer species? |
Species with ability to colonize rapidly |
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--------- percent of the earth's surface is covered with water ------ percent seawater ----percent freshwater ----- percent of freshwater is underground ----- percent of above ground freshwater is in ice or glaciers only ------ is found in streams, rivers, wetlands, and lakes |
70% 97% 3% 30% of fresh in underground 68% of above ground is in ice/glaciers 0.3% is in streams, rivers, wetlands, and lakes |
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Groundwater is important area for... What is a water table? What is ground water recharge? |
-Plants to acquire water through roots, provides water to springs -The upper most level at which water fully saturates the rock or soil - When rain water or surface water percolates through the soil into aquifer |
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What is a Recharge area? Aquifer? Unconfined aquifers? Confines aquifers? |
-Opening at the surface where ground water recharge occurs -Large sources of ground water - Unconfined aquifers- found in porous rock covered with soil -Confined aquifers- surrounded by a layer of impermeable rock or clay. Water is impeded from entering and leaving the aquifer |
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Differences between confined and unconfined aquifers? |
Unconfined can recharge in days or weeks, whereas confined may take 20,000 years -unconfined are more likely to be polluted with chemicals than confined aquifers |
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What are artisan wells? |
Common in confined aquifers where pressure of the overlying rock pushes water to surface- no pumps necessary |
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What is the largest aquifer in the U.S.? |
The Ogallala, water is used for households, agricultrue and industry Could run out at the end of the century |
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What is the cone of depression? What is Salt water intrusion? |
Water table near the well is deper than other areas. Adjacent shallow wells will dry up. - In coastal areas, adjacent salt water fills in where the freshwater was removed |
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What is surface water? Worlds largest rivers? What is a flood plain? |
-Freshwater above the ground, streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, and wetlands. -Amazon, Congo, Yantze - lands surrounding rivers- often highly fertile soils |
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Lake size depends on... Examples Lake Victoria- Caspian sea- Lake Baikal- |
on surface area, depth or volume. Lake V- Large area, but shallow Capsian- has largest area and volume Baikal- has the greatest depth |
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How are lakes formed? What does Tectonic mean? Glaciers? |
Glaciers and plate tectonics - When land rises up and isolates a body of water ( e.g. caspian sea) or when land splits and the valley fills w/water (Lake Victoria) -form depressions in land |
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What is a lake classified? What does Oligotrophic mean?Mesotrophic? Eutrophic? |
Based on their level of primary productivity -low nutrients ( N and P) = low productivity -Low productivity, moderate, high |
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What are wetlands? what are the largest wetlands? |
can absorb and store excess water, reducing floods Pantanal- S. America, worlds largest Everglades- 2nd largest |
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What are atmospheric waters important for? |
Imp. to global water distribution Droughts can result in direct loss of human life, livestock, and crops can alter nutrient cycling and soil fertility Poor land use can worsen during drought - dust bowl where wheat was grown to replace native plants |
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Water impermeable surfaces? |
In healthy systems, porous soils and wetlands soak up excess rain water. Pavement or buildings do not allow water penetration. -Streams and rivers may over flow and flod low-lying areas. |
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What is a levee? Which river has the largest levee, how many miles/ acres? |
Used to prevent flooding in flood plains. Bank of soil on both sides of a river Mississippi river largest in world( 1500 miles 15 mill. acres) |
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What are some problems with levees? |
1. Reduces fertility of soils 2. Nutrients are now carried down river, settle in estuaries 3. By preventing flooding in one area, causes greater threat? |
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What is an example of what high flood waters can cause? What are Dikes? |
Can cause levees to collapse or erode, ex: New Orleans (2005) Katrina caused 50 levees to collapse, killing more than 1500 people Dikes- similar to levees but built to prevent ocean waters from flooding. Common in Netherlands- 27% of the land is under sea level. Pumps used to remove water that passes through. Historically windmills powered water pumps |
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What are dams? Reservoir? |
Barrier that runs across a river or stream to control water flow -Body of water behind a dam, held back for portable water supply, electricity, flood control |
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What are some environmental problems with dams? |
-disrupts natural flow of water obstacle for migrating fish - can have financial, societal and environmental costs Ex: Three gorges Dam( Yangtze river, 1.3 miles wide, 410 long reservoir, flooded 13 cities |
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What are Earth's Layers? |
Core: innermost layer, Dense mass mostly made up of nickel and iron. Inner core is solid, outer core is liquid Mantle: Made of molten rock(magma) Magma circulates in convection cells( like air atm) Asthenosphere- Outer mantle made of semi-molten rock Crust- Chemically distinct outer most layer of lithosphere. Made up of plates that sit on the asthenosphere |
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What is a tectonic cycle? Who is Alfred Wegener? |
Outer core's high temp. occurs from radioactive decay of elements (potassium, uranium) -heat causes magma to move in convection cells under the curst - A Agerman who proposed that the world continents had once been joined on a single landmass he called pangea. |
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What is the theory of of plate tectonics? What are the two types of plates? |
The earth's lithosphere is divided into plates, which are in constant motion. Oceanic plates- lie benath the oceans, high in iron, very dense Continental plates: lie benath land masses, high in silicon dioxide, less dense |
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How are plates moved? |
Plate movement is driven by convection cells in the earths mantle Most plates move about 1.4 in one per year. -Europe/ Africa have collidedw/ N America/South America 2 times in the last 500 years |
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What are the three ways to form rock? What is igneous rock? |
1. directly from molten -igeneous rock 2.compression of sedimetns-sedimentary rock 3. exposure to high temps and pressure- metamorphic rock - classified by chemical compsosition basaltic rock - dark in colored, high in iron, magnesium, clacium, |
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What is sedimentary rock? metamorphic? |
Formed when mud, sand or gravel over al long time. Where fossils are found. -when sedimentary ignores or other metamorphic rocks are subjected to high temp. and pressure causes chemical and physical changes. Pressure from overlying rocks or tectonic pressure. Ex: slate/marble |
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what is soil? |
Mixture of geologic and organic components. connects overlying biology with the underlying geology. Functions= medium for plant growth, primary filter for water, habitatfor living organisms. Function: comes from the physical and chemical weathering of rocks and the accumulation of organic material. |
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What are some factors that determine the properties of soil? |
- climate: soil doesnt develop below freezing, t topography: steep, slopes, erosion, low areas accumulate fine material organisms- plants remove nutrients, animals mix soil Time: Older solis have more time to accumulate organic matter |
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what is subduction? what is divergent plate boundaries? |
Where oceanic plates and continental plates meet, heavier oceanic plates slide under the lighter ones - where oceanic plates move away from eachother causing seafloor spreading. Brings elements such as copper, lead, silver, to the surface. |
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what are convergent plate boundaries? |
when plates move to each other and collide. The heavier oceanic plate often slides under the continental plate. Forms narrow coastal mantians rising magma can form volcanoes. |
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Transform fault boundaries when... What is a fault? Fault zone? earthquake occurs when Epicenter? |
plates move sideways past eachother. - a fracture in rock where there is movement - large expanse of rock where movement has occurred -plates move suddenly - exact point where the movement occurred |
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What are volcanic erruptions? |
When molten magma beneath the crust is released to the surface and atmosphere |
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What is the Rock Cycle? rock is? Mineral? How does rock form? |
Constant formation and destruction of rocks. Substance found in the lithosphere and is somposed of one or more minerals solid chemical substance with unifrom (chrystalline) structures that form under specific temp. and pressure. Can be found as compounds of single elements. forms= when magma cools and hardens on surface rocks breakup (weathering) and deposited (erosion) |
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What is Demography? what must demographers consider? |
The study of human population demographers are scientists awho study human population trends. Consider immigration, emmigration, birth rate, |
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What is immigration? What is emigration? CBR= CDR= |
Moving into an area/ country -Moving out of an area #of briths per 1000 per year (today 20) # of deaths per 1000 per year (Today 8) |
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Global pop. growth is expressed how and can be calculated how? National pop. growth rate calc? |
Expressed in percent, calc [ CBR -CDR]/10 [CrBR+immigration)-(CDR+emigration)/10 |
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What is Human Pop. Stabilization? What is Total Fertility rate? What is replacement level fertility? |
Most demographers believe that the human pop. will stabilize btwn. 6.8-10.5 billion sometime around 2100. - average # of children each woman will have - In U.S. 2.1 - The TFR to offset the average # of deaths in a pop. |
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If ---- and ----- are equal and the TFR is equal to the replacement level fertility then the population will be stable. What is Life expectancy? |
immigration and emigration - The avearge number of years an infant born in a specific year in a specific area can expect to live. Tends to be higehr in countries with lesser health care. Total life expectancy: 69 years(67 men, 70 women) |
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What is the top killer disease? What is the second greatest killer/ |
-Heart disease -Infectious diseases, HIV leading killer In africa 23% of adults have AIDS, life expectancy fell from 63 to 40 years. |
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What is the Theory of demographic transition? |
As a country moves from subsistence economy to industrialization and rise in affluence, undergoes a predicatble shift in population growth |
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What are the 4 phases of demographic transition? |
1. pre-industrial- country experiences slow growth 2. Early industrial- undergoes rapid growth (China) 3. Mature industrial- population stabilization( US) 4. Post industrial- population decline ( Italy) |
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What are aqueducts? |
Canals or ditches that carry water from one place to another ex: Catskills Aqueduct is 120 miles long from Catskill Mountain. |
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What are some problems with water diversion? |
Rivers dry up- Colorado River and Rio Grand can dry up. |
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Liquid Biomass: Ethanol How is Ethanol made? |
By converting starches and sugars in plants into alcohol and CO2 |
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Ethanol 90% comes from what? |
corn(can also be made from sugarcane, wood chips, crop waste, and switchgrass) |
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How much Ethanol does the US produce per year? |
9 billion gallons per year |
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Which place is the 2nd largest producer who makes Ethanol from sugarcane? What is 10% Ethanol called when mixed with gasoline? |
Brazil gasohol |
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What are some properties of Ethanol? |
Has high oxygen content, makes less air pollutants Some areas have E-85 (which is 85% ethanol and 15%gasoline) Used by flex fuel vehicles (can use both) |
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Disadvantages from Ethanol? |
Lower energy content compared to gasoline, reduced by 2-3% -Growing corn to produce ethanol uses fossil fuels, and space that could otherwise be used for food. |
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Biodiesel is usually what? What can diesel engines be modified to run on? |
Usually B-20 (80% petroleum diesel and 20% biodiesel) to run on 100% straight vegetable oil (SVO) from restaurant waste frying oil |
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Where does US Biodiesel come from? |
Mostly comes from soybean oil. Algae is currently being developed, as it is 300 times more oil per area than soy |
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How is hydroelectricity generated? Where is the 2nd most common place renewable electrical energy? What percent worldwide of all electricity comes from hydroelectricity? And where are the world leaders? |
by kinetic energy of moving water US - 2nd most common renewable energy form. mostcommon for generating electricity (mostly in Washington, California, and Oregon) Worldwide 20% of all electricity comes fromhydroelectric plants ( China, Brazil, and US are leaders) |
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What are run-of-the-river systems? Where is water not stored? |
Water is retained behind a low dam and runs through a channel before returning to the river in a reservoir: causes less flooding up stream andseasonal changes in water are not disturbed |
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Disadvantages of hydroelectricity? |
Waterimpoundment systems- Storing water in a reservoir behind a large dam. |
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Where is tidal most common? Where might it have disruptive effects?
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More common in France, England, Ireland, and Canada/Korea. In most places, difference between high and low tides is not enough toprovide sufficient kinetic energy for large energy production. May have disruptive effects in coastal, shoreline, andmarine ecosystems Benefits of hydroelectricity |
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What are some benefits? |
-generates large amounts of electricity without creating air pollution, waste products, or CO2 emissions --Cheaper than natural gas and nuclear fuels -Provides recreational/economic opportunities in thereservoirProvides flood control |
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What are some disadvantages if hydroelectricity? |
-A free flowing river must be held back ⁃ May force people to relocate ⁃ submerged important cultural and archeological sites ⁃ Loss of organisms adapted to free- flowing waters ⁃ Certain human diseases are more abundant in impoundwars ⁃ Release of greenhouse gasses during constructing andfilling ⁃ Methane release from flooded plants decayingunderwater⁃ Over time the reservoir will fill with sedimentthrough “siltation” (decades to 100s of years) |
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what is passive solar energy? |
positioning windows on south-facing walls to allowsolar radiation in the winter. Solar ovens- use in places of wood, reducesdeforestation. -mostly used to heat swimming pools |
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active solar energy? |
use technology to capture solar energy -Solar water heating system - Domestic hot water US ⁃ Also, used to heat pools ⁃ Photovoltaic Systems- capture sunlight to generateelectricity directly ⁃ Some semiconductors generate low- voltage electric currentswhen exposed to sunlight |
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How efficient is active solar energy? What are most systems tied to? |
12%-20% effective ⁃ Most systems are tied to electric grid- selling backto the electric company ⁃ Homes “off the grid” may only use PV electricity forall energy. |
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What is concentrating solar thermal electricity generation? |
⁃ Large scale electric generation. Uses lens and mirrorsto focus sunlight into a beam that heats water and creates steam. Steam turns aturbine that turns an electric generator. ⁃ Best in deserts- constant sunlight and open space |
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Benefits of concentrating solar thermal electricity generation? drawbacks? |
⁃ No air or water pollution. No co2 released ⁃ in homes located miles away from the closestelectrical gird, PV may be cheaper to put in than electrical lines. -Expensive to manufacture and install -Manufacturing requires lots of energy, water, andtoxic metals that can enter the environment -Some require batteries to store electricity |
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What is geothermal energy use? What does it involve? |
Usesheat from natural radioactive decay of elements deep within the Earth involveheat exchangers - circulating cool liquid underground, where it is heated, andreturned to the surface |
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What place uses 87% of all houses use geothermal for heating What can it be used for? |
Iceland ⁃ can be used for generating electricity- heat water tosteam.. |
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Where are some geothermal plants in the US? What are some drawbacks? |
⁃ plants in California, Nevada, Hawaii, and Utah -relieson groundwater supply for steam production. Can release hazardous gases alongwith steam. |
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Ground source heat pumps: At 10 feet what is the temperature? |
a constant 50-60 degree F |
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How do ground source heat pumps work? |
Cyclefluids through pipes buried underground. In summer, picks up cooler temps tocool the house, in winter picks up the heat. Uses 30 to 70% less energy thanconventional heat pumps. Very energy efficient. |
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What kind of energy is the result of unequal heating of the Earth's surface by the sun? Us has the largest production, followed by Germany, Spain, China, Italy and India. |
WIND |
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Denmark has % of its electricity from wind In modern systems how tall is the tower and how long are the blades? Wind may produce energy what % of time? Over a year- how many kilowatt hours and how many homes? |
21% 350 feet tall, with 250 feet long blades 25% of the time 4.4 million kilowatt hours - 400 homes |
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What are some advantages of wind power? |
⁃ produces no pollution and no greenhouse gases⁃ Can share land for other uses, such as cattle grazing |
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disadvantages of wind power? |
⁃ some need batteries to store electricity ⁃ produce noise, unsightly, and may kill birds and bats ⁃ US 40,000 birds are killed each year = 4 deaths per turbine |
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With Hydrogen fuel cells, how is electricity generated? |
is generated by reacting hydrogen with oxygen 2H2 + O2 = energy + 2H2O |
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What is the basic process of hydrogen fuel cells? |
protons are forced through a membrane, while electronsare moved a diff direction. This generates electric current |
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What might hydrogen fuel cells become? |
-May become an important energy carrier - wind andsolar energy is not constant, but could be used to produce hydrogen. This canbe stored and used to generate electricity when needed. |
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with cars and hydrogen fuel cells- what might be an advantage? What are advantages of hydrogen fuel cells? |
electric motors are more efficient than combustion 80% efficient in converting to electricity -Only byproduct is water |
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what are some disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cells? |
must extend energy to get hydrogen (often energy fromfossil fuels) Hydrogen is explosive! Must be handled safely. |
