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51 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Basic Ethical Principles
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Beneficence
Respect for Persons Justice |
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Basic Ethical Principle:
-do not harm |
Beneficence
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Basic Ethical Principle:
-a person is autonomous and has the right to make his own decisions |
Respect for Persons
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Basic Ethical Principle:
-the risks and benefits of research are equally distributed, and no one population should be burdened while another receives the benefits |
Justice
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Person:
-external and internal environment explains diseases -defines “epidemic vs endemic” |
Hippocrates
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Person:
-external and internal environment explains diseases -defines “epidemic vs endemic” |
Farr
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Person:
-published “The Nature and Political Observations Made Upon the Bills of Mortality” -founder of medical stats, births, deaths, by season, year and parish |
Graunt
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Person:
-first planned clinical trial -treated sailors with scurvy |
Lind
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Person:
-first to propose and test a hypothesis: cholera is transmitted by a contaminated water supply -father of modern epidemiology |
Snow
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Type of Epidemiology:
-hypothesis generating -person, place, time |
Descriptive Epidemiology
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Type of Epidemiology:
-hypothesis testing 1.Cohort 2. Case-Control 3. Intervention Studies |
Analytic Epidemiology
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-grouped based on exposure status
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Cohort Studies
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-grouped based on disease status
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Case-Control
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-case-control within cohort study
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Nested Case-Control
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-cases serves as own controls
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Case-Crossover
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Advantages:
-rare diseases -relatively fast -relatively inexpensive Disadvantages: -cannot establish temporality -subject to recall, observer and selection biases -selection of controls difficult -bad for rare exposures |
Case-Control Studies
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Advantages:
-can establish temporality -direct calculation of incidence rates -no recall bias Disadvantages: -subject to attrition bias, exposure, and outcome misclassification -relatively expensive (large sample size) -relatively time consuming (follow-up) |
Cohort Studies
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Disease Pattern
-i.e. food outbreak |
Short-term fluctuations
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Disease Pattern
-long term changes in morbidity and mortality patterns |
Secular Trends
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Disease Pattern
-periodic, often predictable, changes in frequency of morbidity/mortality |
Cyclic Patterns
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Disease Pattern
-a rise in disease that is clearly in excess of what is normally expected |
Epidemic
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Disease Pattern
-constant presence or usual frequency of a disease |
Endemic
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Using group-level associations to make conclusions about individual-level associations
(for example, association found when national salt consumption and national heart disease levels are compared across countries cannot be used to say eating more salt leads to heart disease) |
Ecological Fallacy (Aggregation Bias)
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(# death from a specific disease/ # cases over same time period) x 10^n
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Case Fatality Rate
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(# of new cases with C - # deaths from x/ # cases with the same disease) x 10^n
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Survival Rate
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(# existing cases at a point in time/# at risk at that point in time)
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Point Prevalence – “Snapshot”
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(# existing cases at beginning + new cases over time period/ # in population (or in study))
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Period Prevalence
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New cases in a population over a time period
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Incidence
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Risk of developing a disease:
(# new cases/ # at risk) -exclude prevalent cases |
Cumulative Incidence
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Frequency of disease development
(# new cases/ total person-years at risk) |
Incidence Rate/ Incidence Density (ID)
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(CI in exposed/ CI in unexposed)
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Risk Ratio
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(ID in exposed/ ID in unexposed)
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Rate Ratio
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(Odds of disease among exposed/ Odds of disease among unexposed)
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Odds Ratio
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(Prevalence Rate among exposed/ Prevalence Rate among unexposed)
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Prevalence Rate Ratio
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Compares the observed amount of D among exposed cohort to what would be exposed in an unexposed cohort- indirect adjustment; estimates increased risk of one group over another
(observed deaths/expected deaths) x 100 |
Standardized Mortality Ratio
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Proportion of deaths from a specific cause relative to all deaths in the exposed cohort is compared with the proportion of deaths from a specific cause relative to all deaths in the unexposed cohort
(prop. (%) deaths from X (cohort)/ prop. Deaths from X (comparions) |
Proportional Mortality Ratio
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Evaluating Validity:
-not due to chance alone |
Precision
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Evaluating Validity:
-study results are true, real unbiased, lack systematic error |
Internal Validity
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Evaluating Validity:
-study results are generalizable to your target population |
External Validity
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Two methods to evaluate chance
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Hypothesis Testing
Confidence Interval |
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-P-value
-probability that your study result is different from null solely due to chance -what is the chance that there is truly no association in the population but by some luck of the sample draw, you managed to see the study result you did -Cannot tell the magnitude of the association |
Hypothesis Testing
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-relative magnitude of the association
-general precision: wider, less precise -tells you whether the result is statistically significantly different from null/no association |
Confidence Interval
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If the CI does NOT include the measure of no association, then it is __________
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Significant
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If the CI does include the measure of no association, then it is __________
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Not Significant
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Probability of finding an association if one exist
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Power
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Bias:
-systematic error that results from the way subjects are selected, recruited or retained in a study |
Selection Bias
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Bias:
-systematic error that arises from inaccurate measurements or misclassification of subjects with regard to exposure or outcome status |
Measurement
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-systematic error that occurs because of differential recall about pass exposure status between those who have disease and those who do not
-occurs in case-control and cross-sectional studies |
Recall Bias
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-related to BOTH exposure and disease, and it is NOT on the exposure-disease casual pathway
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Confounder
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Eliminate Confounding in Design Phase
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Randomization
Restriction Matching |
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Eliminate Confounding in Analysis Phase
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Stratification
Multivariate Analysis Direct/Indirect Standardization or Adjustment |