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130 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Acetylcholine (Ach)
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PNS @ nuromuscular junction
Myasthenia gravis - weakness CNS - REM sleep, sleep-wake cycle, and memory Nicotinic receptors - excitatory Muscarinic receptors - inhibitory |
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Catecholamines
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Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
Epinephrine (adrenaline) Dopamine |
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Low levels of norepinephrine and dopamine...
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...depression
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Excessive dopamine...
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Schizophrenia and TS
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Degeneration of dopamine receptors...
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...PD
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Serotonin (5 HT)
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Inhibitory
Mood Temp Hunger Sexual activity Arousal Sleep Aggression |
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Elevated serotonin...
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...schizophrenia and autism
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Low serotonin...
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...dep/suicide, PTSD, OCD, and aggression
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Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
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Inhibitory
Sleep Eating Seizures Anxiety |
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Degeneration of GABA in basal ganglia...
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...HD
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Glutamate
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Excitatory
Learning and memory Long term memory |
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Elevated glutamate...
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...seizures, stroke, HD, AD.
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Endorphins
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Inhibitory
Analgesic Control of emotions, memory and learning, and sexual behavior |
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PNS
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Somatic & Autonomic
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Somatic
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Sensory & Motor
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ANS
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Parasympathetic & Sympathetic
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CNS
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Spinal Cord and Brain (Hindbrain, Midbrain, Forebrain)
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Hindbrain
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Cerebellum, Pons, Medulla Ob
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Forebrain
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Diencephalon and Telencephalon
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Diencephalon
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Thalamus
Hypothalmus |
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Telecephalon
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Limbic System
Basal Ganglia Cortex |
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Spinal cord segments
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Cervical
Thoracic Lumbar Sacral Coccygeal |
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Cervical injury...
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...quadriplegia
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Thoracic injury...
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...paraplegia
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Medulla
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Swallowing
Coughing Sneezing Breathing Heartbeat Blood pressure |
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Pons
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Integration of motor movement
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Cerebellum
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Atrophy associated w/ autism
Damage can result in ataxia (slurred speech, tremor. loss of balance) |
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Reticular Formation
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Respiration
Coughing Vomiting Posture REM sleep |
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Reticular Activating System (RAS)
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Consciousness
Arousal Wakefulness |
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Hypothalamus
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Homeostasis (hunger, sex, food, thirst)
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Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
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In the hypothalamus
Mediates sleep-wake and circadian rhythms (SAD involvement) |
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Basal Ganglia
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Caudate
Putamen Globus pallidus Substantia nigra |
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Limbic System
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Amygdala & Hippocampus
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Amygdala
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Attaches emotion to memory
Kluver-Bucy syndrom - from bilateral amygdala lesions and causes reduced fear, aggression, hypersexuality, and oral behaviors. |
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Hippocampus
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Consolidation. Storage is in frontal or temporal lobes.
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Frontal Lobe
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Motor, premotor, and forward.
Includes Broca. Pseudodepression Pseudopsychopathy |
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Parietal Lobe
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Somatosensory cortex
Apraxia Anosognosia Gerstman Syndrome |
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Temporal Lobe
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Auditory cortex
Wernicke Damage to the temporal lobe produces deficits in declarative memory with episodic memory being affected more than semantic memory. |
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Occipital Lobe
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Visual agnosia
Prosopagnosia - junction of occipital, temporal, and parietal lobes. |
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Split-Brain (Sperry & Gazzaniga)
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Left visual field (of RH individual) could not name, but left hand could identify.
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Dichotic Listening
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We are better w/ right ear (left hem)
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Trichromaic Theory (Young-Helmholtz)
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Three types of color receptors (red, blue, and green).
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Opponent-Process Theory (Hering)
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Red-Green
Yellow-Blue White-Black Negative afterimage |
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Color Blindness
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Trichromat
Dichromat (red-green is the most common) Monochromat X chromosome/recessive |
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Cutaneous Senses
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Pressure (touch)
Warmth Cold Pain |
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Gate-Control Theory
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The nervous system can only process a limited amount of pain at once.
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Synethesia
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Stimulation of one sense trigged by another. Hearing a color.
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Psychophysics
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Relationship b/t physical stimulus and sensations.
Absolute threshold - minimun stim Difference threshold - smallest discrepancy b/t stimuli |
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Weber's Law
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The more intense the stimulus, the greater the increase in stimulus intensity required for the increase to be perceived.
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Fechner's Law
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Associated Weber's law with a logarithm.
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Stevens' Power Law
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B/c of the shortcoming of Weber and Fechner's laws (extreme intensity), Stevens created a "method of magnitude estimation."
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Hemispheric Encoding/Retrieval Assymetry (HERA)
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Left cortex - encoding
Right frontal - retrieval |
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Temporal Lobe and Memory
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Declaritive memory
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Hippocampus
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Stress/Depression (cortisol) can affect Hippocampus
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Amygdala
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PTSD, reward, punishment
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Prefronal Cortex
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WM, Episodic, Prospective
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Thalmus
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Korsakoff's
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Basal Ganglia, Cerebellum, and Motor Cortex
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Procedual and Implicit Memory
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Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
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The long-lasting improvement in communication between two neurons that results from stimulating them simultaneously.
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Protein Synthesis
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And RNA increase during learning.
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6 Universal Emotions
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Fear
Surprise Anger Happiness Sadness Disgust |
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James-Lang Theory
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Sensory stimuli - bodily reaction - emotion
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Cannon-Bard Theory
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Emotion/bodily reaction @ the same time.
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Schacter-Singer
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Physiological arousal and cognitive intpretation.
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Hypothalmus
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Transition of emotions into physical responses
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R/L Hemispheres and Emotion
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Left - Positive
Right - Negative |
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General Adaption Syndrome (GAS; Selye)
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The human response to stress is mediated by adrenal-pituitary secretions (e.g., cortisol) and involves an alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion.
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Type A Personality
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May be hostile and impatient resulting in health problems (CAD).
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Source of sex hormones...
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...pituitary and gonads
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Pituitary produces...
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...gonadotrophic hormones
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Ovaries porduces...
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...estrogen & proestrogren
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Testes produce...
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...androgens (testosterone and androstenedione)
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Fetal Development
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Early exposure to androgens (male) or not (female).
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Puberty
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Secondary sex characteristics.
In industrial countries this is occuring earlier, b/c of good environmental conditions. Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis |
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Sexual Dimorphism
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Sex-related differences in physical appearance of the brain.
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Spinal Cord Injury and Sexual Activity
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Appetite usually remains unaffected.
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Sleep
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Active process. Contemporary theories focus on energy conservation and restoration.
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5 Sleep Stages
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1. Beta - awake
2. Alpha - awake/relaxed (Stage 1) 3. Theta - relaxed (Stage 2) 4. Delta - deep sleep (Stage 3) 5. REM (Paradoxical sleep) |
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REM Sleep Over the Lifespan
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REM decreases as we age.
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When deprived of REM...
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...STM is decreased & rebound REM
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Broca's Aphasia
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Nonfluent; Aware
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Wernicke's Aphasia
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Fluent
Clear speech that makes little or no sense Dysnomia (inability to name objects). |
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Conduction Aphasia
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Damage to AF
Intact comprehension Anomia and impaired repetition |
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Transcortical Aphasia
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Caused by lesions outside Broca's and Wernicke's.
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Transcortical Motor Aphasia
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Broca
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Transcortical Sensory Aphasia
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Wernicke
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Mixed Transcortical Aphasia
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Both expressive and receptive deficits
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Post-Traumatic (Anterograde) Amnesia (PTA)
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> 24 hours increases the risk for long term cog imp
3 mo - most recovery |
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HD
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Offspring have a 50% chance of inheriting HD
Ages 30-50 Degeneration of GABA and glutamate in basal ganglia |
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PD
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Dopamine in substantia nigra
Positive symptoms - tremor & restlessness Negative symptoms - speech diff, bradykinesia, and masked face |
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Absence (petit mal) seizure
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LOC w/o motor symptoms
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Partial Seizures
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Simple partial - no LOC
Complex partial - LOC |
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Hyperventilation
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Produces a drop in carbon dioxide and leads to respiratory alkalosis (reduced hydrogen on blood) and hypixia.
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Hypertention
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Primary or essential; silent killer (85-90%)
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Migraine
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Classic w/ aura
Common w/ gastrointestinal |
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PMS
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75% - minor
20-50% - syndrome 3-5% - Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (responds well to placebo) |
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Pituitary Gland
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Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) - water loss/retention
Somatotrophic (growth) - hypo (dwarfism) and hyper ( giantism) |
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Thyroid Gland
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Tyroxine (matabolism)
Hyperthyroidism (Grave's) Hypothyroidism (Slow) |
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Pancreas
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Too much insulin - too little sugar (hunger, dep, anx)
Too little insulin - too much sugar - diabetes (confusion, mental dullness) |
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Traditional Antipsychotics
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Bock D2 receptors
Treats positive Schizo symptoms Chlorpromazine Fluphenazine Thiothexene Haloperidol |
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Traditional Antipsychotic SE
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Anticholinergic - dry mouth, blurred vision, tachycardia, urinary retention, constipation.
Extrapyramidal SE - TD |
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Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome
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Rapid onset of motor, mental, and autonomic symptoms (rigidity, tachycardia, hyperthermia, and altered consciousness)
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Atypical Antipsychotics
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D4 receptors
+/- symtoms of Schizo Extrapyramidal SE are less Angranulocytosis Clozapine Resperidone Olanzapine Quetiapine |
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Antidepressants
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Tricyclics (TCA's)
SSRI's MAOI's |
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TCA's
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Amitriptyline (Elavil)
Doxepin Imipramine (Tofranil) Clomipramine (Anafranil) |
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TCA Use
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Dep w/ decreased app/weight, sleep disturbance, psychomotor retardation, and anhedonia.
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TCA Mode of Action
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Block reuptake of norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine. (catecholamine hypothesis support)
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TCA SE
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Cardiotoxic
Anticholinergic Hypotention Overdose can be lethal (suicide caution) Tricyclics are associated with cognitive impairments such as deficits in concentration -- especially in the elderly. |
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SSRI's
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Fluoxetine (Prozac)
Fluvoxamine (Luvox) Paroxetine (Paxil) Sertraline (Zoloft) |
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SSRI SE
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Gastrointestinal disturbances
Anxiety Headache Anorexia Tremor Sexual dysfunction |
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SSRI & MAOI
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Serotonin Syndrome - headache, nystagmus, tremor, dizziness, unsteady gait, changes in mental state, cardiac arrhythmia and coma or death
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MAOI's
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Isocarboxazide
Phenelzine Tranylcypromine |
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MAOI's Use
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For depression w/ anxiety or hypersomnia
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MAIO Site of Action
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Inhibits monoamine oxidase, which breaks down dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin
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MAIO SE
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Anticholinergic SE, insomnia, agitation, confusion, hypertension
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Bupropion
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Less cardiotoxic w/o sexual dysfunction
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Venlafaxine
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Less dangerous than MAIO's and faster onset.
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Lithium SE
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Nausea
Hand tremor Polyuria Polydipsia Toxicity Watch sodium |
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Carbamazepine
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Anticonvulsant
Valproic acid Clonazepam |
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Sedative-Hypnotics
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Barbiturates
Anxiolytics ETOH Highly addictive Withdrawal |
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Barbiturates
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Amobarbital
Pentobarbital Secobarbital Phenobarbital |
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Barbiurates SE
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Drunken state
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Benzodiazepines
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Anxiolytics
Diazepam Alprazolam Oxazepam Triazolam Chlordiazepoxide Lorazepam |
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Benzo's Mode of Action
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Stimulate GABA (inhibitory)
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Buspirone
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Reduces anxiety w/o sedation
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Beta-Blockers
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Propranolol - for hypertension, but also treats anxiety. It would be useful for reducing tremors.
Not for pulmonary disease |
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Narcotic-Analgesics (opioids)
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Opium
Morphine Codeine |
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Psychostimulants
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Amphetamines
Methylphenidate (SE: loss of appetite, abdominal pain, insomnia, and tachycardia) Increase norepinephrine and dopamine |
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Agonist
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A substance that stimulates or mimics the effects of a neurotransmitter.
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Antagonist
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Blocks or inhibits the effects of a neurotransmitter.
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