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209 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Ernest Haekel
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German
Father of Ecology |
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Ecology
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relationship between organisms and their environment
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Organismal ecology
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studies how an
organism’s structure, physiology, and (for animals) behavior meet environmental challenges |
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Landscape
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Mosaic of the connecting ecosystems
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Epiphyte mats
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nutrients in rain forrest on the floor
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Population
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a group of individual species occupying a certain area
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1835
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Charles Darwin, Galapagos Island
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1838
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Darwin said that species with certain traits would have an advantage over others if they had certain traits
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Hardy Weinberg
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principle states that in a
population mating at random in the absence of evolutionary forces, allele frequencies will remain constant. |
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Hardy Weinberg equation
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p2+2pq+q2 = 1.0
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Five conditions of H-W
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1. Random mating
2. No mutations 3. Very large population 4. No gene flow between populations 5. No natural selection |
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Mutation
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main source of genetic variation
More negative than positive Change in the sequence Average rate of mutation 1/100000 |
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genetic drift
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change in frequency due to chance
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heritablity
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h2= VG / VP
• VG : Genetic variance • VP : Phenotypic variance |
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.0003 cal to heat
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i cm of air
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580 gals of water
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cooled with 1 cal
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1 g of water gives of
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80 cals as it freezes
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air has the most
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variation in temperture
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deep pool as the least
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variation in temperture
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allocation
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energy trade-off
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Extreme temperatures
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decrease the rate of photosynthesis
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Acclimation
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Phsiological change in the response to temperature
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• HS = Hm ± Hcd± Hcv± Hr- He
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! HS
= Total heat stored in an organism ! Hm = Gained via metabolism ! Hcd = Gained / lost via conduction ! Hcv = Gained / lost via convection ! Hr = Gained / lost via electromag. radiation ! He = Lost via evaporation |
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Plants have three ways to reduce heat
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" Decrease heating via conduction (Hcd
). " Increase convective cooling (Hcv ). " Reduce radiative heating (Hr ). |
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Poikilotherms
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direct variation with the environment
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Lateral Muscle of the fish
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keep them warm
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help animals thermoregulate
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! Insulation
! Circulatory adaptations ! Cooling by evaporative heat loss ! Behavioral responses ! Adjusting metabolic heat ! production |
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counter current exchange
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Warm veinous blood warms the cold arterial blood
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Insects tranfer heat
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from the thorax to the abdomen to keep from overheating
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Thermal neutral zone
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range at which the metabolic heat does not change, the temperature range
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Group Augmentation
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In meerkats (Suricata
suricatta), the foraging success, growth, breeding success, and survival of all group members increase with group size. |
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Eusociality
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higher social, acts like a super organism, dvision of labor, reproductive and non-reproductive.
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niche
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Summarizes environmental factors that
influence growth, survival, and reproduction of a species. |
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Demography
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is the study of the vital statistics
of a population and how they change over time |
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life table
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an age-specific summary of the
survival pattern of a population |
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cohort,
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a group of organisms that are the same age
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Ro= Σ lxmx
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X= Age interval in days.
• l x = % pop. surviving to each age (x). • mx= Average number seeds produced by each individual in each age category. |
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Geometric Rate of Increase
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λ
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Geometric Rate of Increase
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λ=N t+1/ Nt
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values of Geometric rate
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N t+1 = Size of population at future time.
• Nt = Size of population at some earlier time. |
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Fecundity Schedule:
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Tabulation of birth rates for
females of different ages |
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Nt = Noλt
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Nt = Number of individuals at time t.
– No = Initial number of individuals. – λ = Geometric rate of increase. – t = Number of time intervals or generations |
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intrinsic rate of increase
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the rate of reproduction is at its max
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Exponential population growth
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dN/dt=rN
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rmax
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maximum increase for the species
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T
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-generation time; average reproduction; average span
between the birth of individuals and the birth of their offspring |
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s curve
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slowing rate of growth as the carrying capasity is reached
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logistic growth
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dN/dt = r N (1 - N/K)
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logistic growth model
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dN
dt=rmax N(K - N)/K |
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logistic growth with limited resources
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dN
dt=rN(1 – N) K |
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Regulation
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the existence of an equilibrium towards which a population
is attracted |
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semelparity or big bang reproduction
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reproduce once and die
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reproduce multiple times
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iteroparity, or repeated
reproduction |
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– r selection
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• Characteristic high population growth rate, unpredictable environment, single reproduction
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– K selection:
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: Predictable environments, efficient resource use, reproduce many times
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Intensity of disturbance
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Any process limiting plants by destroying biomass
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Intensity of stress
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External constraints limiting rate of dry matter
production. |
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Ruderals
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highly disturbed habitats
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Stress-Tolerant
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high stress - no disturbance
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Competitive
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low disturbance low stress
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survivalship
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lx
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fecundity
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mx
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age of reproductive
maturity |
(α)
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Opportunistic
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low lx- low mx-early α - guppy
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Equilibrium:
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high lx- low mx- late α - shark
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Periodic
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low lx- high mx- late α - sturgeon
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competitive
exclusion |
elimination of one species by competition
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ecological
niche |
The total of a species’ use of biotic and abiotic
resources is called the species |
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Realized niche
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includes interactions such as
competition that may restrict environments where a species may live. |
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Resource partitioning
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is differentiation of
ecological niches, enabling similar species to coexist in a community |
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Lotka Volterra
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Effect of interspecific competition on population
growth of each species |
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Lotka Volterra Formula
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dN1/ dt = rmax1N1((K1-N1-12N2) / K1)
dN2/ dt = rmax2N((K2-N2- 21N1) / K2) |
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Competition coefficients
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express the
competitive effects of the competing species |
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Character displacement
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is a tendency for
characteristics to be more divergent in sympatric populations of two species than in allopatric populations of the same two species |
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Exploitation
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Interaction between populations
that enhances fitness of one individual while reducing fitness of the exploited individual. |
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parisatoid
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insect that eats its host
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population growth
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dNh/dt = rhNh – pNhNp
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population growth
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rhNh = Exponential growth by host population.
– Opposed by: • p = rate of parasitism / predation. • Nh = Number of hosts. • Np = Number of parasites / predators. |
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parasite/predator growth rate
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dNp/dt = cpNhNp-dpNp
• cpNhNp = Conversion rate of hosts into offspring. • pNhNp = Rate at which exploiters destroy hosts. • C = predator constant (conversion factor) • dpNp - predators deaths |
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Facultative Mutualism
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the two can survive without each other, but there are benefits
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Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
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• Produces arbuscules - site of exchange between plants and
fungi, hyphae - fungal filaments, and vesicles - energy storage organs. |
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– Ectomycorrhizae (ECM)
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Forms mantle around roots - important in increasing plant
access to phosphorus and other immobile nutrients. |
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Community Structure
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includes attributes such
as number of species, relative species abundance, and species diversity |
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Life Form
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Combination of structure and growth
dynamics. |
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Species Evenness
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• Relative abundance of each unique species
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Relative abundance
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is the proportion each species
represents of the total individuals in the community |
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Shannon Wiener Index:
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s
H’ = -Σpi * lnpi i=l H’ = Value of SW diversity index. Pi = proportion of the ith species. (ln) Loge = natural logarithm of pi . S = Number of species in communit |
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the nitrogen cycle requires
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different types of bacteria
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An experiment was conducted where either nitrogen, phosphorus,
nitrogen and phosphorus or no fertilizer was added to grass plats. Which of the following is a correct interpretation of the data. |
nitrogen is the main limiting nutrient
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a consumer eating a producer represents
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a transfer of chemical nutrients and energy
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Which of the following will provide a prey refuge
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all of the above
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Ephemerellid mayflies under attack by stoneflies will typically.
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Adopt a posture, which increases their apparent size, so that the
predator will avoid them. |
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The difference between a male and female
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size and energetic cost of gametes
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A biome is characterized mainly by
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Climate and predominate plant types
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Guppies are sexually dimorphic and there is intersexual selection
on male guppy coloration. |
Male guppies found in populations exposed to
few predators are brightly colored |
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In general phenotypic variance..
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Partitions genetic variance for
necessary adaptation to the environment |
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A country whose age structure diagram has a base smaller than most
of the next high levels |
negative population growth
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Genetic differences between populations tend to be reduced
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by gene flow
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Which of the following correctly pairs the organism with its
location of the ocean. |
Benthic, Photo-kelp
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Adult green woodhoopoes will stay close to their natal territoriesand help raise the young of close relatives, rather than dispersing to produce their own young,
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because helpers in freases their inclusive
fitness and exhibit strong philopatry as high quality territories with sutable roosting |
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These temperature and precipitation data were most likely
collected from which of the following biomes? |
A boreal forrest
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In the vicinity of the eqator air typically
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rises, cools, and precipitates
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An ecologist hypothesizes that predation by a particular owl
speices is the major factor controlling the opopulation fo a particular rabbit species. |
determine whether or not the owl eats rabbits
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The greatest annual input and least seasonal caration in solar
fadiation occurs in the |
tropics
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wolves
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are an example of a keystone species
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Which of the following is an example aposematism
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a poisonous snake with a bright color pattern
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the number of trophic levels in an ecosystem is limited by
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The
loss of energy with each transfer between trophic levels. |
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organisms that derive there energy from sunlight
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autotrophs
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The exponential model of population growth assumes
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unlimited resources
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carbon returns to the atmosphere by
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respiration and burning
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photosynthetically active radiation
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Includes only the solar
energy within these wavelengths |
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Most amphibians and land-dwelling invertebrates
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are ectothermic organisms
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Which aquatic environment typically experiences the least daily variation in temperature?
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deep pool in a stream
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The lower and upper limits of 95% confidence interval for a mean of 14.3, derived from a sample of 25 where the standard deviation is equal to 4.2 are:
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12.6534, 15.946
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Which of the following statements about ecology is incorrect?
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Ecology is a discipline that is independent from natural selection and evolutionary history
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The upper and lower limits of 95% confidence interval for a mean of 10, derived from a sample of 100 where the standard deviation is equal to 4 are:
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10.78, 9.22
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Organisms able to do sulfur oxidation at 65˚C are called……………….., while bacteria growing at -2˚C are called…..........
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Thermophilic, psychrophilic
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Ectotherms tolerate greater variation in internal temperature, while endotherms are active at a greater range of external temperatures
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true
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Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of air or liquid past a surface, as when a breeze contributes to heat loss from a lizard’s dry skin, or blood moved heat from the body core to the extremities.
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true
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Landscape ecology is best described as the study of
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spatial patterns and ecological processes over a range of scale
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Which of the following levels of organization is arranged in the correct sequence from most to least inclusive?
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ecosystem, community, population, individual
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Which of the following organisms is not an Ectotherm?
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walrus
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Sphinx moths (Manduca sexta) increase thoracic temperature due to flight activity, therefore those insects can thermoregulate by transferring heat from the thorax to the abdomen.
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true
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Studies involving the body temperature of bluefin tuna indicate that stomach and muscle temperatures can vary greatly and be above the temperature of the surrounding water thanks to blood vessels that function as countercurrent heat-exchangers
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True
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Plants can reduce their _____ gain by orienting their leaves parallel to the rays of the sun.
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heat radiation
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The direct transfer of thermal motion (heat) between molecules of objects in direct contact with each other, as when lizard sits on a hot rock, is called:
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conduction
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If a small organism has surface area of 6 µ2 and volume of 1 µ3, this organism will have ……… µ-1 surface to volume ratio. A large organism with surface area of 384 µ2 and volume of 512 µ3 will have ……… µ-1 surface to volume ratio.
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6, 0.75
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If the standard deviation of a population is 12, what is the population variance?
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144
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Metabolic heat (Hm) is the heat
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released during cellular respiration
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. ______________ is defined as a group of potentially breeding organisms within a species in a given space and time.
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population
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Hyperthermophilic bacteria are heat-loving bacteria which prefer temperatures above 90° degrees C
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true
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Eastern Skunk Cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus) stores large quantities of starch in a large root, and then translocates it to the inflorescence where it is metabolized thus generating heat 30 C higher than the surrounding temperature.
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True
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An ecosystem is defined as ………………….
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all of the organisms that live in an area and the physical environment with which they interact.
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Two woodpeckers, a rooster, 2 northern cardinals and 3 robins from your background will represent
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a bird community
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The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that
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allelic frequencies within a population will not change unless certain conditions are met
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Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation:
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p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1.0
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For a population in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, in a situation where there are only two alleles at a particular locus, the proportions of genotypes are: SS = 0.64, Ss = 0.32, and ss = 0.04. Calculate the allele frequency for the recessive allele.
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0.2
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For thousands of years, humans have bred domesticated plants and animals to produce and maintain desirable traits, such as large fruits. Darwin used which term to describe this:
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artificial selection
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A simple tree community consists of 4 maples, 3 oaks, and 1 alder. The species richness of this community is
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A simple tree community consists of 4 maples, 3 oaks, and 1 alder. The species richness of this community is
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Principle of allocation states
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If organisms use energy for one function such as growth, the amount of energy available for other functions is reduced
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In the Lotka-Volterra competition equations, the parameter alpha12 relates to the
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effect of species 2 on population growth rate of species 1
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In general population density………………with increasing organism size
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declines
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A community is defined as
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an association of interacting species inhabiting a defined area
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The process of evolution toward niche divergence in the face of competition is called ____________.
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character displacement
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If the isocline for species 1 lies above that of species 2
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species 1 will eventually exclude species 2.
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Gause's "competitive exclusion principle" states that
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no two species with identical niches can coexist indefinitely
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A species feeding on the tissue of its host, while not killing it directly, is a
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parasite
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In the Lotka-Volterra predation model, a prey (host) population in the absence of predators would
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grow exponetially
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Analysis of the Lotka-Volterra competition model implies that two competitors can coexist only when
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intraspecific competition is stronger than interspecific competition
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Which of the following is NOT a characteristic favored by K-selection?
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many small offspring
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When using a significance level of 0.05, how often will you reject hypotheses that are actually correct?
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5% of the time
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Which statement about snowshoe hare and lynx populations in boreal Canada is false?
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without being eatwn, snowshoe hares never deplete their food supply enough to affect their population biology
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Which of the following equations bests represents change in prey numbers in predator/prey community interraction?
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delta H=rH-pHP
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Which of the following statements is consistent with the principle of competitive exclusion?
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Even a slight reproductive advantage will eventually lead to the elimination of the less well adapted of two competing species.
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What interactions exist between a lion pride and a hyena pack?
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-/-
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How might an ecologist test whether a species is occupying its realized or its fundamental niche?
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Remove a competitor species to see if the species expands its range
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Monarch butterflies are protected from birds and other predators because of cardiac glycosides they incorporate into their tissues from eating milkweed when they were in their caterpillar stage. The wings of a different species of butterfly, the Viceroy, look nearly identical to the Monarch so predators that have learned not to eat the bad-tasting Monarch avoid Viceroys as well. This example best describes
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Batesian mimicry
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Which of the following would be most significant and complete in understanding the structure of an ecological community?
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determining how many species are present overall, which particular species are present, the kinds of interactions that occur among organisms of different species, and the relative abundance of species
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Which of the following is an example of cryptic coloration?
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a "walking stick" insect that resembles a twig
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By inspecting the zero-growth isocline for species 1(fig 10.8 in lab manual) estimate the value of K1 and the value of alpha
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70 and 0.64
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For a population of lions feeding on zebras in an African savannah, assume that H=1200, p=0.004, r=0.7 and P=130 What is the projected total population size for the zebras?
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1416
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Estivation is long-term torpor that is an adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity
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FLASE
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Which of the following is the correct equation used to understand the components of heat gain and loss which regulate body temperature?
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Hs=Hm±Hcd±Hcv±Hr–He
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In a sample of 100 measurements where the standard deviation in 4, the standard error will be equal to:
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0.4
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Floods and extreme temperature are density-dependent factors influencign population growth
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false
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dominant species
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are those that are most abundant or have
the highest biomass |
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ecology engineers
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•Cause physical changes in the environment that affect
community structure •Influence resource availability by creating new habitats that are used by other organisms |
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Invasive species
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, typically introduced to a
new environment by humans, often lack predators or disease |
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trophic structure
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is the feeding relationships
between organisms in a community It is a key factor in community dynamics |
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food chains
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link trophic levels from
producers to top carnivores |
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food web
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is a branching food chain with
complex trophic interactions |
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Indirect interactions
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are the effects of one
species on another through a third species |
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One species indirectly benefits another
species (through a third species) while it is neither helped or harmed |
Indirect commensialism
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apparent competition
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Negative effects between two competitors who
share a predator or herbivore – One species may facilitate the presence or increase the abundance of the predator which suppresses the second species |
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keystone species
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is a species that has a disproportionately large effect on its environment relative to its abundance.[
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kelps
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large brown algae
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sea urchins
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eat the roots of kelps that keep them planted
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Top-down forces:
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predation,
parasitism, disease. Higher trophic levels control community structure. |
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Bottom-up forces
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: the quality and
quantity of food available. Lower trophic levels control community structure. Both are imp |
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tri-trophic interactions
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Variation at one trophic level
influences the interaction between the other two. |
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bottom-up model
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of community
organization proposes a unidirectional influence from lower to higher trophic levels |
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top-down model,
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also called the trophic
cascade model, proposes that control comes from the trophic level above |
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primary production
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: Fixation of energy by
autotrophs in an ecosystem. |
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Rate of primary production
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Amount of energy
fixed over a given period of time. |
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Gross primary production
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Total amount of energy
fixed by autotrophs. |
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Net primary production
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Amount of energy leftover
after autotrophs have met their metabolic needs. |
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two hypothesis that help to explain the food web
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: the energetic hypothesis and the
dynamic stability hypothesis |
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energetic hypothesis
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suggests that
length is limited by inefficient energy transfer, most supported |
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dynamic stability hypothesis
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proposes
that long food chains are less stable than short ones |
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ecological efficiency
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is the percentage of
energy transferred from one trophic level to the one above it |
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Nutrient circuits in ecosystems involve biotic and
abiotic components and are often called |
biogeochemical cycles
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water moves
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Water moves by the processes of evaporation,
transpiration, condensation, precipitation, and movement through surface and groundwater |
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in aquatic ecosystems
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CO2 must first dissolve
into water before being used by primary producers |
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nitrogen fixers
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use atmospheric
supply directly |
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ntrogen release
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, N can be
released by fungi and bacteria during decomposition. |
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the main resouvoir of nitrogen
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is in the atmosphere
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Nitrogen cycle
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Organic nitrogen is decomposed to NH4
+ by ammonification, and NH4 + is decomposed to NO3 – by nitrification • Denitrification converts NO3 – back to N2 |
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phosphrus
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Largest quantities found in mineral deposits and
marine sediments, weathering rocks |
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the rate of decomposition
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is controlled by
temperature, moisture, and nutrient availability |
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agriculture
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nitrogen is the main thing lost
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critical load
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for a nutrient is the amount that
plants can absorb without damaging the ecosystem |
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secession
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: Gradual change in plant and
animal communities in an area following disturbance |
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primary sucession
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on newly exposed
geological substrates |
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secondary sucession
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following disturbance
that does not destroy soil. |
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climax community
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Late successional
community that remains stable until disrupted by disturbance |
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facilitation
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Proposes many species may attempt to
colonize newly available space. |
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tolerance
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Initial stages of colonization are not limited to
pioneer species. |
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inhibition
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Early occupants of an area modify the
environment in a way that makes it less suitable for both early and late successional species. |
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Predicted rate of extinction would rise with
increasing number of species on an island for three reasons: |
– Presence of more species creates a larger
pool of potential extinctions. – As number of species increases, population size of each must diminish. – As number of species increases, potential for competitive interactions between species will increase. |
