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166 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Any naturally occurring inorganic solid that possesses an orderly crystalline structure and can be represented by a chemical formula |
mineral |
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any naturally occurring solid mass of mineral or mineral-like matter |
rock
|
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Positively and negatively charged atoms. Strongly attracted to each other |
ions |
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______ is the attraction of oppositely charged ions to one another, producing an electrically neutral compound. |
ionic bond |
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No ions are present. Sharing of valence electrons |
covalent bonding |
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an electron of an atom, located in the outermost shell of the atom, that can be transferred to or shared with another. |
valence electron |
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Contains ions. Packed metal atoms have valence electrons free to move throughout the structure. Packed metal atoms have valence electrons free to move throughout the structure. |
metallic bonding |
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appearance in reflected light |
luster |
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can vary and is not as diagnostic |
color |
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color of mineral in powdered form |
streak |
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ability to resist scratching or abrasion |
hardness |
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tendency to break along planes of weak bonding |
cleavage |
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random pattern of breakage |
fracture |
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resistance to cutting, breaking, bending, and deformation |
tenacity |
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mineral density |
specific gravity |
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consists of 10 minerals arranged from 10 (hardest) to 1 (softest). |
mohs scale |
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cleavage me by in one direction |
muscovite |
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is the amount of stretch that an object contains. Matter keeps its shape from deforming into another. |
elasticity |
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it can be hammered or bent into different shapes without breaking. |
malleability |
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Can be replenished in relatively short time spans |
renewable |
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Earth has fixed quantities |
nonrenewable |
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location where slippage begins, the place within Earth where earthquake waves originate |
hypocenter/focus |
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point on Earth’s surface directly above the hypocenter |
epicenter |
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T or F: Most earthquakes occur at depths of about 100 km or less |
true |
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study of earthquake waves |
seismology |
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earthquake recording instrument, Records movement of Earth |
seismography |
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record of earthquake waves |
seismogram |
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Push-pull (compressional) motion; Travel through solids, liquids, and gases; Greatest velocity of all earthquake waves |
Primary wave or P wave |
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“Shake” motion; Travel only through solids; Slower velocity than P waves |
Secondary wave or S wave |
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Complex motion; Which travel along the outer layer of Earth; Greatest amplitude and slowest velocity of all waves,; Cause greatest destruction |
Surface Wave |
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A measure of the degree of earthquake shaking at a given locale based on the amount of damage |
Intensity |
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the __________ estimates the size of an earthquake based on intensity of shaking. |
Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale |
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Often measured using the Richter scale; Based on the amplitude of the largest seismic wave; A 10-fold increase in wave amplitude results to an increase of 1 on the scale; Does not estimate adequately the size of very large earthquakes |
magnitude |
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the _________ estimates the size of an earthquake based on ground movement. |
Richter scale |
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Measures total energy released; Measures very large earthquakes; Derived from the amount of displacement that occurs along a fault zone
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moment magnitude scale |
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What is the strongest earthquake on record? |
1960 Chilean at 9.5 moment magnitude |
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In areas where unconsolidated materials are saturated with water, earthquake vibrations can turn stable soil into a mobile fluid, a phenomenon known as ___________.
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liquefaction |
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A German meteorologist and geophysicist wrote The Origin of Continents and Oceans |
Alfred Wegner` |
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Earth's rigid outer layer or shell is called _______ |
lithosphere |
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Exists beneath the lithosphere; Hotter and weaker than lithosphere; Allows for motion of lithosphere |
athenosphere |
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Plates move apart from each other, making oceanic crust |
divergent plate boundaries |
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Plates move toward each other, making mountains or volcanoes |
convergent plate boundaries |
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Plates grind past each other without making or destroying crust |
transform plate boundaries |
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Long-lived structures; Some originate at great depth, perhaps at the mantle-core boundary. |
mantle plumes |
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an area of volcanism, high heat flow, and crustal uplifting that is a few hundred kilometers across |
hot spot |
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the direction and intensity of Earth's magnetism in the geologic past. |
Paleomagnetism |
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occurs where cold, dense oceanic lithosphere is subducted and pulls the trailing lithosphere along.
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slab pull |
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results when gravity sets the elevated slabs astride (on both sides of) oceanic ridges in motion. |
ridge push |
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Crystallization above or below ground to form igneous rock |
magma |
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Breakdown of a material at the Earth’s surface |
weathering |
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Solid particles produced through weathering |
sediments |
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Conversion of sediments through compaction and crystallization by groundwater to form sedimentary rock |
lithification |
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Change due to high temperatures and pressures below ground to form metamorphic rock |
metamorphism |
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what type of rocks form when magma or lava cools and solidifies |
igneous |
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What type of rocks form due to weathering? |
sedimentary |
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When sedimentary rock is buried deep in the crust, heat and pressure cause it to become what type of rock? |
metamorphic |
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are dominated by light-colored silicates |
felsic rocks |
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are dominated by dark-colored silicates |
mafic rocks |
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fast rate of cooling |
fine grained |
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slow rate of cooling |
coarse grained |
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two rates of cooling |
porphyritic |
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very fast rate of cooling |
glassy |
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contains hole left by gas bubbles |
vesicular |
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fragmented; produced by consolidation of volcanic fragments |
pyroclastic |
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what type of rocks contain felsic? |
granitic |
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what type of rocks is a mixture of felsic and Mafic? |
andesitic (intermediate) rocks |
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what type of rocks is composed of mafic? |
basaltic rocks |
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form from an accumulation of material that is transported as solid particles from mechanical and chemical weathering. |
detrital sedimentary rocks |
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Very fine-grained particles less than 1/256 mm; Mud-sized particles in thin layers or beds ; Most common sedimentary rock |
shale |
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Composed of sand-sized particles 1/16 to 2mm (Medium) ;Forms in a variety of environments ;Quartz is the predominant mineral |
sandstone |
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consists largely of rounded gravels. |
conglomerate |
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is composed mainly of large angular particles. |
breccia |
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the most abundant chemical rock |
limestone |
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is a coarse rock composed of loosely cemented shells and shell fragments. |
coquina |
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compressed plant material |
coal |
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Layer upon layer of sediment accumulates, these layers, called : |
strata or beds |
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applies forces equally in all directions |
confining pressure |
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unequal pressure in different directions. |
differential pressure |
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Flat arrangement of mineral grains or structures; Minerals are perpendicular to the compressional force |
foliation |
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Contain equidimensional crystals Resembles a coarse-grained igneous rock |
non foliated texture |
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uparched sedimentary strata |
anticline |
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displaced strata |
fault trap |
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includes layers of rock salt |
salt dome |
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original sedimentation pattern
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Stratigraphic (pinchout) trap |
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is an oil and gas well development process that typically involves injecting water, sand, and chemicals under high pressure into a bedrock formation via the well, that stimulate the flow of natural gas or oil, increasing the volumes that can be recovered. |
Hydraulic fracturing / fracking |
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An aggregate of mineral or mineral-like matter is best described by the term __________. |
rock |
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The rock limestone consists of impure masses of ___________. |
calcite |
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The atomic number of carbon is six, so we can conclude that it normally contains _________. |
six protons |
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`Two or more elements bond together in definite proportions to form a(n) __________. |
compound |
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Breakage along planes of weak bonding producing distinctive, smooth, flat surfaces is known as __________. |
cleavage |
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Which properties is the least reliable to help identify a mineral? |
color |
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Which mineral groups is most abundant in the crust? |
silicates |
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The basic building block of the silicate minerals __________. |
contains one silicon atom and four oxygen atoms |
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The cleavage of a silicate mineral is largely determined by __________. |
internal structure |
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After ancient seas evaporate, thick layers of this mineral can be formed and later mined for economic use. |
halite |
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Metallic minerals mined at a profit are most commonly referred to as __________. |
ores |
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Which of the following materials is comprised of minerals? |
limestone |
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The surface process that slowly disintegrates and decomposes rock is called __________. |
weathering |
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The process that results as the random movement of ions slows and the ions come to rest organized within a pattern is called __________. |
crystallization |
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Igneous rocks showing voids left by escaping gas bubbles are also called __________. |
extrusive |
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Which characteristics is shown by obsidian? |
glassy texture |
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Rocks with abundant dark-colored silicate minerals containing iron and magnesium such as olivine and pyroxene are best described as “__________.” |
mafic |
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Rhyolite has the same chemical composition as _________. |
granite |
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Detrital sedimentary rocks are subdivided according to __________. |
particle size |
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Which of the following cannot be an example of biochemical sedimentary rock? |
sandstone |
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what is considered a nonfoliated metamorphic rock? |
marble |
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Which one of the following is an industrial mineral resource? |
rock gypsum |
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Important metallic minerals, such as gold and copper, are sometime distributed in trace amounts throughout the whole rock in a ____________deposit. |
desseminated |
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Complex mountain systems such as the Alps, Appalachians, and Himalayas are the result of __________. |
Continental-continental convergence |
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During oceanic-continental convergence, as the oceanic plate slides beneath the overriding plate, a ____________ is often produced adjacent to the zone of subduction. |
deep-ocean trench |
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During subduction, when a slab sinks into the asthenosphere, the trailing plate follows along because of ___________. |
slab pull |
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The age of the deepest sediment in an ocean basin ____________ with increasing distance from the oceanic ridge. |
increases |
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Typical rates of seafloor spreading average around __________ centimeters per year. |
5 |
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Paleomagnetism of rocks that exhibit a pattern or orientation different than the modern-day magnetic field is labeled _________. |
reverse polarity |
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The chain of volcanic structures that extends from the Hawaiian Islands to Midway Island and then continues northward toward the Aleutian trench have formed over a ____________ as the Pacific plate moved. |
hot spot |
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The age of the Hawaiian islands ________________. |
increases away from the Big Island of Hawaii |
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The circular motion of convection occurs because it is _____________. |
heat and density driven |
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The “layer-cake” convection model indicates the source of mid-ocean ridge basalts as a result of _____________. |
upper layer convection |
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Earthquake epicenters are most closely correlated with ____________. |
plate boundaries |
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The difference in ____________ of P and S waves provides a method for determining the epicenter of an earthquake. |
velocities |
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The epicenter of an earthquake is located using the distances from a minimum of ____________ seismic stations. |
3 |
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An earthquake with a magnitude of 6.5 releases about ____________ times more energy than one with a magnitude of 5.5. |
30 |
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In areas where unconsolidated materials are saturated with water, earthquakes can turn stable soil into a fluid during a phenomenon called ____________. |
liquefaction |
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An increase in heat generally results in the ______________ of mechanical strength of Earth materials. |
decrease |
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What wave has the highest velocity?
|
Primary waves |
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The Mercalli Scale is a scale from ________. |
I to XII that rates the structural damage due to an earthquake |
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Major earthquakes are often followed by somewhat smaller events known as _________. |
aftershocks |
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When an earthquake occurs, energy radiates in all directions from its source. The source is also referred to as the _______. |
focus |
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The Richter magnitude of an earthquake is determined from the ______. |
amplitude of the largest seismic wave |
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Overall, this type of seismic wave is the most destructive. |
surface wave |
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T or F: Large earthquakes almost always produce new faults because the old faults tend to "heal" in the long time that separates most large earthquakes. |
false |
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T or F: the velocity of seismic waves generally increases with depth in the earth. |
true |
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T or F: A magnitude scale is a measure of the energy released. It does not measure the extent of building damage or loss of life. |
true |
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The ________ is the site of initial rupturing associated with an earthquake. |
focus. |
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Which two elements combine to make most of the common rock forming minerals in the crust? |
Silicon and Oxygen |
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Atoms that share electrons have a ______ bond. |
covalent |
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Which mineral reacts readily with cool, dilute hydrochloric acid to produce visible bubbles of carbon dioxide gas? |
calcite |
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The strong tendency of certain minerals to break along smooth, parallel planes is known as _______. |
cleavage |
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Gypsum which is widely used in plaster and wallboard is a member of the _____ group. |
Sulfate
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Which one of the following mineral groups exhibits a sheet-like silicate structure? |
micas |
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T or F: A mineral can be composed entirely of one element |
True |
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T or F: all minerals exhibit cleavage. |
false |
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What physical property denotes then color of a powdered mineral? |
streak |
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Hardness is the ability of a mineral to ______. |
resist breaking or scratching |
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When sand lithifies, the resulting rock is commonly called ______. |
sandstone |
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Intrusive igneous rocks are often characterized as course-grained because _______. |
the slow cooling at depth allows large crystals to grow |
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Breccia, a rock with angular particles, is likely to have traveled ________. |
only in short distances |
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Why does magma rise toward the earth's surface? |
Because it is less dense that the material around it. |
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The most important agent of metamorphism is? |
Heat |
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T or F: Olivine and quartz are commonly found together in the same igneous rock |
False |
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T or F: Basalt is the fine-grained equivalent of gabbro |
True |
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T or F: Sedimentary rocks are an important source of information about the Earth's history |
True |
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Igneous rocks that contain mostly quartz and feldspar with small amounts of biotite would be described as having a _________, |
granitic |
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An igneous rock that cools deep inside the earth is called an ________ igneous rock |
intrusive |
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When metamorphic rock exhibits a layered or banded appearance, it is said to exhibit a _______ texture. |
foliated |
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New oceanic crust and lithosphere are formed at ________. |
divergent boundaries by submarine eruptions and intrusions of basaltic magma |
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Cooler, older, oceanic lithosphere sinks into the mantle at __________. |
subduction zones along convergent plate boundares |
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Which energy source is thought to drive the lateral motions of Earth's lithospheric plates? |
Export of heat from deep in the mantle to the top of the athenosphere |
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A transform plate boundary is characterized by _______. |
a deep, vertical fault along which two plates slide past one another in opposite directions |
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T or F: Continental crust is generally thicker than oceanic crust |
True |
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T or F: In general, rocks of the continental crust are less dense than rocks of the oceanic crust |
True |
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T or F: Ocean Drilling is the thickness of dements increases with distance from the ridge crest |
True
|
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T or F: Hawaiian Island chain showed that the volcanoes increase in age with increasing distance from the "big island" of Hawaii |
true |
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Japan and the Aleutian Islands have formed from an _______ to ________ convergent boundary |
oceanic to oceanic |
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____________ is the layer of warm rock below the crust and uppermost mantle that readily deforms and flows plastically. |
asthenosphere |
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The San Andreas fault in California is a good example of _________ plate boundary. |
transform |