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332 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Saturn
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Similar to Jupiter, rings long but very thin, made up of ice and dust fragment debris controlled by its moons/shepherd moons
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Jupiter
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Greatest mass (almost a star), rapid rotation, gives off more heat than sun provides, H and He atmosphere, 67 moons (Io, Ganymede, Europa, and Callisto) H gas compressed as inner liquid rocky core
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Uranus
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Rotates on side, blue color from methane, dark rings of dust and ice. H and He atmosphere
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Neptune |
Similar to Uranus, blue color from methane, dynamic atmosphere with winds, 13 moons
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Venus
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"Earth's twin", hottest planet, thick atmosphere of sulfuric acid, young volcanic surface, few impact craters, rotates opposite direction, 80% lava flows, rotates slowly |
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Mercury |
Smallest, rotates slowly, no atmosphere, heavily cratered (old surface), smooth plains, dense core
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Mars
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CO2 atmosphere, red color= iron oxide, dust storms/hurricane winds, polar ice caps frozen CO2, inactive surface, weathering/erosion, 2 moons
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Galileo
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Confirmed Copernican model, constructed own telescope, once moving- objects continue motion without application of forces. Discovered moon's surface to be not smooth, sunspots on sun, 4 Jupiter moons, Earth is not center of universe, planets not light they are circular disks like Earth, Venus has phases like moon
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Kepler
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Supported Copernican model, used Tycho's observations of Stellar Parallax (shift of nearby stars relative to further stars) |
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Hipparchus
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Eratosthenes
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Aristarchus |
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Copernicus
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Ptolemy
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Big Band Theory
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Origins of universe and universe expanding constantly |
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How many stars and light-years is Milky Way?
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200 billion stars, 100,000 light-years across 1 of billions of galaxies |
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Milky Way shape and location of Earth
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The two different results of supernova massive stars
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Neutron star or black hole |
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End of massive stars and why? |
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End of Sun-like star
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Balance of gas pressure and gravity |
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Nebula |
Where stars are formed |
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3 Types of Nebulae |
Reflective- dense clouds reflect nearby stars and dust Dark- blocking out light from stars further away, layers of expanding gas |
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White dwarfs |
Sun-like stars (yellow stars), interior collapses and explodes |
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Red giants |
Runs out of nuclear energy, gravity takes over, heats up, cools down, and then expands |
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Hertzsprung-Russel Diagram |
Stars related in color, temperature, and brightness |
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Red stars vs Blue stars
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Blue: high temp, high mass, short wavelength, short life, fast nuclear consumption |
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Absolute Magnitude
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Light Year
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Sun's energy |
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Corona
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Outer most part of sun, hottest, ionized gas |
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Chromosphere
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The red, thin layer of plasma (incandescent gas) |
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Photosphere
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Sun rays we see on Earth, visible |
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Cecelia Payne |
Determined composition of stars, by analyzing the light emitted |
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Fluorescence Gas |
Light from colorful emission nebula |
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Color and Wavelengths |
Violet and Blue: hot, bright, short wavelength Red and Orange: cool, dim, long wavelength |
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Light
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Electromagnetic radiation, different types are determined by wavelengths |
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Hypothesis of Solar System |
Sun and all planets formed from gravitational contraction of dust and gas |
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Asteroids |
Minor bodies of rock and metallic
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Comets
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"Dirty snowballs", loose masses of ice and dust/rock material, left over debris from formation of solar system |
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Asteroid Belt
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Between Mars and Jupiter |
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Kuiper Belt |
Outside Neptune and in dwarf planets (including Pluto)
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Dwarf Planets
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Can't clear away most smaller bodies along orbital path |
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Cryovolcanism
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Eruptions produced by melting of ice rather than silicate rock
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Europa
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Young surface, ice with liquid water, deep tidal forces heating core, highly fractured ice, Earth's moon size |
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Io |
Most volcanically active body, silicate-based lava, tidal flexing for internal heat, Earth sized |
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Orbital spacing |
Mars, Venus, Earth, Mercury= closer together Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune= far apart |
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Craters and Marias |
Earth's moon Maria: dark plains, huge amounts of basaltic lava Craters: high velocity impacts (meteors) |
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Water on Mars
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Inertia |
Keeps planets in orbit, gravity locks into place, depends on mass Orbits result from both inertia and gravity |
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Astronomic Unit
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Distance from Earth to Sun |
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Hypothesis |
Educated guess, reasonable explanation not fully accepted until tested
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Fact
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Objective, empirical evidence, verified carefully measured |
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Theory
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Large body of into encompasses well-tested and verified hypothesis that explain observations
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Law |
General statement about relationships of natural quantities that tested over and over, not contradicted |
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Stars emit...
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Dark-line spectrum |
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Enceladus
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Brightest body in solar system, young and old surface, ice, tectonic deformation of surface (ridges) |
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Titan
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Biggest Saturn moon, liquid methane lakes, thick nitrogen atmosphere and hydrocarbon compounds, dirty ice, hydrocarbon ice, erosion, bigger than Mercury
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Newton
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Laws of motion and gravitation govern all bodies in universe |
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Newton's Laws |
Mass= quantity of matter (constant) Weight= force due to gravity 2. Law of Gravitation: body in universe attracts other bodies with force Directly proportional to mass inversely proportion square distance of center mass |
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Kepler's 3 Laws
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2. Planet revolves so imaginary lines connecting it to sun, sweep over equal areas in equal time 3. Orbital periods planets and distances to sun are proportional Perturbation: variance in orbit of body from predicted path |
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First Greek to propose sun-centered model solar system
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Aristarchus |
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Model implying sun, moon, and all planets follow perfect orbits around stationary Earth (Earth-centered) |
Ptolemy
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3 Laws of Planetary Motion
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Kepler
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Derived the Law of Universal Gravitation
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Newton |
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First law of Planetary Motion, the shape of the path a planet follows around sun |
An ellipse with the sun located at one focus |
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Second law of Planetary Motion
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Planets move faster when they are closest to sun |
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3 Truths about the Law of Gravitation |
1. Orbits of planets are affected by gravitational attractions between planets 2. Massive planets (Jupiter) have greater gravitational pull than less massive planets 3. Distance between the centers of two objects is doubled, then force due to gravity is 4 times weaker |
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Planets with greater density and lower mass
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Why is Venus hot
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Very dense atmosphere of CO2 and traps heat |
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4 Truths about Mars
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1. Very large volcanoes on surface, are extinct 2. Branching drainages and dry stream beds 3. Polar ice caps and frozen CO2 4. Atmosphere is too thin to allow existence of life |
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Jupiter moon most volcanically active
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Planet rotates on side
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Saturn's Rings |
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Titan and Life
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Composed of thick nitrogen-rich atmosphere that contains organic compounds |
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Pluto not a planet because... |
Has not cleared away other bodies and debris within orbit |
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Most widely accepted hypothesis
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The sun and the planets formed from gravitational contraction of interstellar cloud of dust and gas |
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Radio waves, infrared, visible light, x-rays
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They are all forms of electromagnetic radiation that are defined by differences in wavelength |
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Astronomers currently have a way to knowing compositions of stars even though they can't sample them directly |
Use light, temp, and size |
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Sunlight we see emitted from sun's layers
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Photosphere |
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Sun has magnitude of 5 and a star has magnitude of 1.5, which is bigger?
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1.5 is bigger than 5
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The distance of other stars is measured in what units?
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Light years |
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Emission Nebulae |
Interstellar clouds of gases are fluorescing as ultraviolet light from nearby stars and is absorbed, converted into visible light |
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Death of a star like Sun
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It will collapse into a white dwarf and shed outer layers forming a planetary nebula |
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Milky Way Shape |
Sun located on one of the outer spiral arms and is one of 200 billion stars |
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Two most abundant elements in Sun |
H and He |
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Orbital period for Earth |
365 days |
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Why Jovian planets formed thick atmosphere |
Have thick gases that trap heat from inner core |
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Evidence that strongly supports Big Bang Theory |
Universe is expanding |
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Type of Volcanism found on Saturn's moon Enceladus |
Cryovolcanism
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Jupiter's red spot
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Hurricane lasted for 300 years between two atmospheres |
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One other dwarf planet than Pluto
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Reason why some stars are brighter and have different magnitude |
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Where is Kuiper Belt located |
Outside, past Neptune, holding dwarf planets |
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Moment Magnitude Scale
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More precise for determining energy release in large earthquakes |
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Moment Magnitude Scale Determined by...
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1. Area of displacement along fault 2. Rupture of surface 3. Shear strength of rock and the amount of energy rock can store before it slips |
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Richter Scale
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Waves weaken with distance from focus |
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Richter Scale Number Correspondence
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10in fold increase wave amplitude 32in fold increase energy release Distance measured to Amplitude= Magnitude |
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Pacific Northwest Earthquake Evidence On-Land
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Drowned forests in tidal marshes/beaches, tsunami deposits, massive landslides, ghost forests, liquefaction geysers and sand deposits between growing sediments
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Pacific Northwest Last Major Earthquake
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Shadow Zone
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Belt around earth where no p-wave and s-wave are detected |
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Earth's Layers and Physical Characteristics of Seismic Waves |
S-waves can only travel through solid: crust and mantle |
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Seismic Gaps |
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Long-Range Predict |
Quakes reoccur in the same places |
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Short-Range Predict
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Recognizing foreshocks (before the big earthquake) |
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Tsunami Starter
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Subducting plate sends vibration upward through ocean Caused from earthquakes, underwater landslides, or volcanic eruption Earth can wobble up to 2.5cm on axis of rotation temporarily |
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Landslides
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Slopes and cliffs, slick layers of clay breaking into blocks, used to be above sea level, dust clouds on mountain slopes from aftershocks |
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Liquefaction |
Water-saturated sediments turn into a mobile fluid around rivers, swamps, and lakes Structures collapse and sink, pipes float up to surface, geysers of sand/mud shoot up from ground, loose sediment rock and materials |
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Earthquake records |
Alaska: 9.4 Sumatra: 9.3 *All subduction zones Vertical shifts in elevations above sea level or below in subduction zone |
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Richter vs Moment Magnitude Scales |
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Mercalli Intensity Scale
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Based on the kind of ground one was standing on, eyewitness, create maps/scales of earthquakes |
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P-waves vs S-waves |
P-waves: fastest travel, push-pull (compress- expand), fastest on the sea floor, the denser the rock the faster, travel through solids, liquids, gas S-waves: second fastest, side-side (sheer waves), only go through solids, temporarily change shape of material instead of volume |
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Seismology
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Richter scale: sits in bedrock and scribbles movements of plates |
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Foreshocks
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Smaller earthquakes that precede a major earthquake in days/years, warning earthquakes, big earthquake follows after signs of small pockets of energy being released |
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Aftershocks |
Smaller earthquakes due to movements along fault and neighboring faults, disrupting other plates' stress, after major earthquake, take days or months |
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Theory of Elastic Rebound
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Cause earthquakes along faults, force deforms crustal rocks storing energy, friction resistance, creating vibrations and focus point (ruler bend) |
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Earthquake define |
Occur when energy is released, slippage along fault in crust, plates continue along fault line and will happen again, energy radiates outward from focus in form of seismic waves Shallow earthquakes more destructive than deep earthquakes |
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Faults |
Fractures in crust which movement occurs (not perfectly straight lines), elastic rebound theory within faults, majority of earthquakes occur along tectonic plates |
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Epicenter
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Point on earth's surface vertically above the focus point of earthquake |
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Focus
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Origins of earthquake, releasing vibration along fault, wave fronts go in all directions outward from focus |
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Indonesia Chain
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Most dangerous subduction zone in world |
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Largest Earthquake occurrence is where?
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Subduction zones |
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Cascadia Subduction Zone
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Offshore from pacific northwest, cascades associated with plate |
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Mountains Continent-Continent Convergence
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Continental collisions= mountains Alps Himalayas: highest peak on earth (Mt Everest) Urals: oldest ancient boundaries separating Asia and Eurasia Appalachians Make crescent shape from plate boundary from buckling and folding of plate, vertical lift |
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Continent-Based Hotspots
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ex: Yellowstone |
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Ocean-Based Hotspots |
ex: Hawaiian Islands |
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Hotspots
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Volcanic heat flow associated with a plume of hot mantle (mantle plume), can exist in middle of plate tectonic, mantle plume interacts with lithosphere creating volcanoes |
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Ring of Fire |
Large number of volcanoes erupt and earthquakes occur in the basin of pacific ocean, 90% of all earthquakes occur there |
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Volcanic Arc |
ex: cascade range |
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Lithosphere in Plate Boundary Movements
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Convergent: destroys lithosphere Transform: neither |
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Transform Plate Boundaries
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Plates slide horizontally past one another, lithosphere isn't created nor destroyed, actively along faults dividing oceanic ridges into sediments ex: San Andreas Fault (California) |
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Subduction Zone |
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Convergent Plate Boundaries
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Two plates move towards each other, one plate plunges beneath the other, subduction zones and continental collisions |
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Divergent Boundary: Sea Flood Spreading
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New lithosphere forms at oceanic ridges, hot rising mantle comes to surface creating new sea floor, lithosphere thickens as moves away becoming thicker, denser, and cooler, new sea floor is thinner and less dense |
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Divergent Plate Boundaries |
Two plates move apart, located on oceanic ridges, longest topographic feature on surface, causes continental rifts, can be in ocean or on surface, separating of continents
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Driving Force of Plate Motion |
Convection in mantle, soft and malleable, warm water rises, cools, becomes denser as it moves away |
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Plate Tectonics
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Magnetic Surveys
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Alternating high and low magnetism in rocks, sea floor spreading from opposite field of ridges, patterns of stripes due to spreading and magnetism level (young to old) |
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Sea Floor Spreading |
Sea floor younger than continents, youngest is by ridges, oldest is further out, lithosphere forms and sinks back into mantle, diverging overtime as magma moves up and recycles back into earth, floor moves and spreads outward (moving continents) |
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Theory of Plate Tectonics
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Lithosphere is divided into plates that move about on soft, gradual flowing rocks of asthenosphere, developed by Harry H Hess, sea floors spreading: new lithosphere forms at oceanic ridges |
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Pangaea Evidence
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Fossil similarities, rock age, plant life similarities, glacial deposits similar age, swamp zone deposits, mountain range similarities Best evidence: ocean floors: thinner crust constantly recycling, sea floor spreading |
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Continental Drift Hypothesis
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Developed by Alfred Wegener, worlds continents once joined together as supercontinent Pangaea, broke apart 200 million years ago
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Continental More Elevated to Ocean Floor
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Thicker crust is more elevated than thinner crust, continental is less dense and thicker
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Inner Core
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Solid iron-nickel alloy, inner most sphere of Earth |
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Outer Core |
Liquid iron-nickel, generates Earth's magnetic field, only layer completely molten
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Lower Mantle
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Strong, rigid mantle rock, rocks may undergo movement |
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Asthenosphere |
Soft, weak mantle rock, capable of gradual flow, rock is near melting point, convection of mantle rocks allows for movement of plate tectonics |
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Lithosphere |
Rigid outer part of earth, cool rock, includes crust and upper mantle, forms plate tectonics |
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Curst: Oceanic |
Composed of basaltic rock (dark rock), high density, 7km thickness, 180 million years old (younger), constantly recycling by plate tectonics |
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Crust: Continental
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Core (chemical)
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Iron-nickel alloy, average density: 13g/cm2
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Crust (chemical)
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Oceanic: basaltic, dark and denser silicate minerals Average density: 2.7-3.0 g/cm3 |
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Paleomagnetism
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Study of record of earth's magnetic field preserved in rocks and sea flood spread, lava cools (basalt= sea floor), and rocks solidify, aligned with magnetic field a little off-set from rotation of earth, change over time b/c shifts on crust |
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Seismic Waves Used To...
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Determine the properties of Earth's interior |
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Mantle (chemical) |
Average density: 3.4 g/cm3 |
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Plate Boundaries
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More concentrated earthquakes on plate boundaries, along ridges and trenches on sea floor, mantle flows over time to create old/new surface, 1968 theory was accepted
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Types of Waves
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Surface waves: travel across earth's surface (more destructive) Body waves: travel through earth's interior (less felt) P-waves: primary waves, fastest traveling S-waves: secondary waves, second fastest |
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Arrival of P/S waves |
Determined by distance, greater distance= greater distance to epicenter Triangulation: location of epicenter found when distance to epicenter is known, at least 3 different seismograph stations |
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Intensity vs Magnitude
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Magnitude: amount of energy released determined by calculations from seismic records (technology) |
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Tsunamis |
As the ground becomes shallower, the wave size increases |
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Destruction of Earthquakes |
Buildings: need to be wood or steel (flexible) brick and concrete are BAD Nature of surface: soft unconsolidated sediments are best (silt or sand) mud and gravel are BAD |
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Earthquake Predicting
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Presently, we cannot reliably predict the timing of an earthquake within a narrow span of time |
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Pacific Northwest Source of Earthquakes
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Subduction zone, crustal faults, deep earthquakes in subducted plate, goes from Northern California to British Columbia |
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Pacific Northwest Cascadia Subduction Zone
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Produces large earthquakes with tsunamis, pacific plate subducting under north American plate, mountains (volcanic arc) parallel with Juan De Fuca subduction zone |
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Pacific Northwest Earthquake Evidence Ocean-Based
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Record of Earthquakes from Turbidites
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Earthquake's moment magnitude can be accurately determined by... |
Amount of displacement along fault AND the surface area of the rupture |
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Magnitude of earthquake on richter scale determines if...
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Distance of epicenter AND amplitude of largest wave recorded on the seismogram |
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What would not create a tsunami?
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Horizontal displacement along transform fault |
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How much more energy is released during a mg 9 earthquake and mg 8? |
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Parameters that define a mineral |
1. Natural occurring: part of the earth 2. Solid substance: not liquid/gas 3. Orderly crystalline structure: atoms/molecules bond 4. Definite chemical composition: chemical compound 5. Generally inorganic: no biological activity |
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Rock define |
Solid mass of mineral matter that occurs naturally as part of the planet, can be composed of one mineral, most are several minerals, some composed of non-mineral matter (glass or organic matter)
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Two most abundant elements in Earth's crust
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Oxygen and Silicon combine to make silicates
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Silicate minerals and their building block
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Building block is silicon tetrahedron, 4 oxygen and 1 silicon
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Rocks that make up most of Earth's crust
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Element define |
Substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical or physical means, composed entirely of one atom |
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Compound define
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A substance (mineral) consisting of atoms of different elements |
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Chemical bonds
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When atoms share electrons to become stable, ionic bonds are most commonly found, and covalent bonds are less common
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Crystal form or Crystal habit
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External expression of a mineral's internal arrangement of atoms, holds a geometric shape based on how molecules are arranged (quartz)
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Silicon Tetrahedron
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One Si and four O atoms are the fundamental building block of silicates, Fe, Mg, K, Na, Ca can join to silicate structures
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2 most abundant silicate minerals
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Quartz, Feldspar: hold 50% of Earth's crust |
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Nonsilicates define
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Less abundant in Earth's crust, many of economic importance (rubys and diamonds), found in sedimentary rocks (calcite, gypsum, and halite)
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3 categories of rocks
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Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic |
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How rocks of each group are formed
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Igneous rocks form from molten rock, partial melting rocks in upper mantle and lower mantle Sedimentary rocks form from compact sediments and dissolved materials into rock (layers) Metamorphic rocks form from intense heat and pressure |
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What is magma and it's materials
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Melt: liquid portion of magma body composed mainly of freely moving atoms of elements found in silicate materials Solids: mineral crystals Volatiles: gases dissolved in magma such as water vapor and CO2 |
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Intrusive vs. Extrusive rocks
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Extrusive rocks formed above surface (lava) Intrusive rocks are slower cooling (coarse grain) Extrusive rocks are rapid cooling (fine grain) |
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Relationship between cooling and rate of crystal size in igneous rocks
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Fine-grained: rapid cooling= formation to crystals too small to see, common texture for extrusive igneous rocks Coarse-grained: slow cooling= formation of large visible crystals, common texture for intrusive rocks |
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Igneous rock texture |
Fine-grained: rapid cooling Coarse-grained: slow cooling Porphyritic: large crystals embedded in small crystals Frothy: gas escape from magma, pockets Glassy: no crystals, random ions Vesicles: lava rocks gases come out of magma |
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Igneous rock compositions |
intermediate: andesitic (mix) mafic: basaltic (coarse grained) |
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Identify Igneous rock's composition
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Amounts of light and dark colored silicate minerals can indicate it
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Which igneous compositions have a greatest amount of silica (SiO2) and which have the least
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Greatest to Least: felsic, intermediate, mafic, ultramafic
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What igneous rock compositions make up continental crust and oceanic crust
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Continental: granitic (felsic) Oceanic: mafic (basaltic) |
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What rock type makes up Earth's upper mantle
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Ultramafic Peridotite is main rock in upper mantle |
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Light vs. Dark silicate minerals in the Bowens reaction series
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Darkest to Lightest: ultramafic, basaltic (mafic), andesitic (intermediate), granitic (felsic)
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Based on Bowens reaction series, which igneous rock compositions have the higher and lower melting/crystallization temperatures |
High to Low: ultramafic, basaltic, andesitic, granitic |
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How magma is formed at divergent (oceanic ridges) and convergent (subduction zones) plate tectonic boundaries
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Divergent: decompression melting Convergent: volatiles, water in rock |
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Magma compositions are formed from partial melting of mantle rocks vs. partial melting of continental crust |
Ultramafic rocks: mafic (basaltic) magma, basaltic volcanism Continental crust: felsic (granitic) from assimilation mixing create intermediate magma |
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The common compositions of magma erupted at oceanic ridges vs. subduction zones
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Oceanic ridges (and Hotspots): decompression melting, crystallized magma, mafic Subduction zones: volatiles, intermediate (andesitic) magma |
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Sedimentary rocks define |
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Sedimentary rock examples |
Conglomerate, sandstone, limestone (biological), slate (mudstone clay and silt) |
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Metamorphic rock define
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Temperature, pressure, presence of chemically active fluid
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Metamorphic rock examples |
Schist (mudstone recrystallized), gneiss (granitic), marble (limestone), slate (slate/mudstone) |
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Igneous rock define
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Cooling and crystalized magma above and below surface, magma buoyantly rises and sometimes reaches the surface as lava |
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Extrusive Igneous rock/volcanic rocks
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Intrusive Igneous rock/plutonic rocks
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Formed when magma crystallizes below the Earth's surface, magma loses its mobility before reaching the surface
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Fine-grained rock examples
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Lava rocks that contain gas bubbles called vesicles (basalt)
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Minerals within magma
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Do not crystalize at the same rate at the same time during cooling, some crystals may grow large before others form (fine-grained and coarse-grained), common igneous rocks have variety |
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Porphyritic texture
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If molten material is quenched almost instantly...
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There is no time for ions to arrange themselves into crystals, forms glass (obsidian), common volcanic glass, magnesium-oxide is mostly silica (makes for best weapons) |
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Single element minerals
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Native minerals (copper, gold, silver, nickel, lead, iron, zinc) |
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Aggregate and Compound Define
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Compound: mineral made of more than one element |
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Two types of rock from volcanoes
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Pumice: frothy glass with gas pockets, buoyant |
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Fe, Mg, K, Na, Ca Light vs. Dark Silicates
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Dark: rich in Fe and Mg, low silica (thin and runny magma) Light: rich in Na, K, Ca, high silica (thick and sticky magma) |
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Common compositions of rock in continental, oceanic, and volcanic arcs
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O: basalt and gabbro extrusive rock V: intermediate andesite extrusive rock and diorite intrusive rock |
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Ultramafic composition
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Peridotite: upper mantle rock, rarely found on the surface |
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Pegmatite composition
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Unusually large crystals, granitic, lots of silica, from fluid-rich magma, look like veins in rock, contain rare earth element for jewelry and electronics |
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Bowen's Reaction Scale crystallizing rocks
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High temp and Dark and Low silica content Low temp and Light and High silica content |
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Role of pressure in Magma
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Greater pressure: greater melting temp, why rocks remain solid in earth's interior, decompression melting |
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Role of temperature in Magma
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Role of volatiles in Magma
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Water lower the melting temp of rocks, how magma forms along subduction zones
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Igneous Composition Tectonic Setting
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Intermediate: most subduction zones Mafic: oceanic ridges, continental rifts, hotspots |
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Igneous Composition Common Origins
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Intermediate: mixing of mafic and felsic Mafic: partial melting of mantle rocks |
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Igneous Composition Volcanic Landforms |
Intermediate: composite cones Mafic: shield volcanoes, basalt plateaus, cinder cones if gas is high in magma |
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Igneous Composition Lava Flows
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Intermediate: short, thick lava flows Mafic: runny fluid-like lava flows |
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Igneous Composition Styles of Volcanic activity
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Intermediate: explosive when full of gas Mafic: less explosive, gas escape more easily |
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Igneous Composition Melting Temp
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Intermediate: moderate Mafic: high |
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Igneous Composition Viscosity
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Felsic: greatest Intermediate: high Mafic: lowest |
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Igneous Composition Silica Content |
Felsic: high Intermediate: moderate Mafic: low |
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Igneous Composition General Mineralogy
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Felsic: most light silicates (K-feldspar, quartz) Intermediate: light silicates (plag, biotite) Mafic: most dark silicates (pyroxene, olivine) |
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Most magma cools and crystallizes where?
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Below the surface (plutons) |
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Plutons Rock
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Intrusive, slowly cooled below surface, ex: dikes, sills, laccoliths, batholiths, volcanic pipes/necks |
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Dikes
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Sheet-like that cut across existing rock, vertical, formed when magma injected into fractures |
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Sills
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Sandwich between sedimentary rock, horizontal, formed when magma injected between rock |
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Laccoliths |
Similar to sills, by are dome shaped in rock layers, composed of viscous magma |
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Batholiths |
Massive intrusive rock surface exposures, multiple plutons in continental crust, formed from cores of mountain system
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Volcanic Pipes |
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Volcanic neck |
Volcanic pipe left behind after erosion removed the overlying volcanic cone
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Factors that determine the nature of volcanic eruptions |
The more gas= the more explosive More viscosity= more sticky/thick lava |
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Factors affecting viscosity of magma
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Temp: higher temp= lower viscosity Composition: more silica= greater viscosity Lava is thick when cold and then runny when hot |
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Silica content vs. viscosity
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High to Low viscosity: felsic intermediate, mafic, ultramafic Felsic= most explosive |
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Extrusive Igneous activity
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Like opening a can of soda |
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Common Volcanic Gas
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Water vapor, SO2 (sulfur-dioxide), CO2 |
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Mafic compositions in Volcanoes
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Gases escape with ease to low viscosity and propel incandescent lava into air (lava fountains) Hawaiian island |
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Felsic to Intermediate compositions in volcanoes
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High viscous magma upward migration of expanding gases, internal pressure builds in a series of explosions Magma with gas= bubble nucleation= fragmentation (foamy)= explosions (volcanic ash)= eruption column (plume ash/gas mushroom) |
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Pyroclastic flow composition
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Explosive material, fragments of volcano, rapid expansion in releasing gases |
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Volcanic Ash
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Fine particles of pulverized rock and glass ejected from volcanic vent, rapidly chilled magma (no crystals), pumice
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Welded Tuff |
Hot ash settles, glassy chards fuse to form rock
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Lapilli and Cinders
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Pyroclastic material range in size, little pieces of pumice
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Pyroclastic Materials |
Blocks: fragments of hardened lava large chunks Bombs: fragments of incandescent lava, arcs path, spinning motion (football) Spatter: fluid fragments of lava, bubbles of gas pop and explode (spatter cones) |
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Lava Flows
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Basaltic flow: low silica and viscosity, runny fluid lava flow Andesitic flow: moderate thin fluid, slightly more silica and viscosity Rhyolitic dome: moderate thick fluid, slightly less silica and viscosity Rhyolitic spire: high silica and viscosity, thick/sticky lava flow |
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Basaltic Lava Flows
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Pahoehoe
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Basaltic lava, smooth outer skin that wrinkles as the molten interior flow continues, glassy skin Ancient pahoehoe craters of the moon national monument |
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Aa
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Basaltic lava, rough surfaces of jagged blocks and rubble, thicker flow, slow moving, high viscosity due to lower temp so topples pahoehoe
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Pillow Lava
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Rounded structures, extrusion of lava underwater, glassy surface
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Columnar Joints
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Lava flow cools and contracts, develops shrinkage fractures produce pillar-like columns, thick lava flow, hexagon shape vertical pillars Can also occur in felsic to intermediate lava |
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Felsic (rhyolite and obsidian) Lava Flows
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Felsic: high viscosity, slow flowing lava can't stray far from vent, thick and sticky, piles up around vent forming domes and steep lava flows |
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Largest Peak Volcano
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Lassen Peak |
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Volcano Structures
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Activity begins when fissure develops in crust as magma forces to the surface, fountains of basalt lava |
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Conduit or Pipe |
Magma's path to surface in a circular pipe |
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Vent |
Surface opening of volcanic conduit |
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Volcanic Cone |
Structure formed from the accumulation of lava and pyroclastic material around vent
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Craters Form
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Steep-walled depressions formed by accumulation of material around central vent (build rim) and excavation by explosions, at the summit
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Caldera
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Collapse structure formed during draining of magma reservoir under surface, a collapse of a composite volcano (crater lake) |
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Fumaroles
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Small vents primarily emit gases, smells of rotted egg (sulfuric-oxide)
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Shield Volcanoes define
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Shield Volcanoes Lava Flows
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Aa type flows (lava discharged from summit and fissures) and pahoehoe flows (thick and slow lava) Basalt caves Steep-walled calderas |
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East Rift Zone
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Active area, huge active volcanoes
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Cinder Cone
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Small, simple volcanic cone, built from pyroclastic material, one time eruption then expands (extinct), smallest volcano |
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Cinder Cone Composition
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Scoria: a product of gas-rich basaltic magma Some made from pumice and ash from gas-rich felsic magma |
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Composite Cones
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Lava flows AND pyroclastic material (both explosive and effusive eruptions), tall and steep, Ring of Fire (volcanic arcs), most dangerous volcanoes, thick flows of lava, high viscosity (felsic) |
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Volcanic Ash Impacts
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Respiratory problems Collapse of structures Short-term climate impacts (cooling effect, no sun) Lighting attacks Ash cloud plumes in atmosphere |
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Pyroclastic Density
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Most dangerous, glowing avalanches of hot gases with incandescent ash and large rock fragments, fast and far distances (over water), above boiling point, gravity driven, ash propelling up |
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Pyroclastic Surges |
Fast moving, higher proportions of gas and rock, travel downslope along low areas (hills and ridges), broken rock and pumice, turbulence helps propel and move down slopes until it runs out, buoyant gas
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Causes of Pyroclastic Flows
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Collapse of eruption: gravity overcomes initial upward thrust, lava dome and lava flows on volcano summit (steep and unstable), lateral blasts from side of volcano |
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Lahars
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Volcanic activity present or not, rapid melting of ice, mudslides but haul boulders and trees and ash, from river channels or canyons
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Lahar Causes
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Hot pyroclastic flows mixing with snow and ice, earthquakes, heavy rainfall/snowmelt |
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Signs of Impending Eruption
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Earthquakes under volcano, magma forces up through cracks (create bulge in summit, swelling), fumarole activity and steam eruptions, change in composition in gas emissions, deform of volcanic structure
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Hummocky
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Rocks from summit, broken up rock from landslide, major hazards in cascade mountain range (Mt. Reiner tallest peak) |
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#13 Mount Saint Helens
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Largest landslide recorded |
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#12 Pinatubo
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2nd largest in 20th century, volcano collapse (caldera)
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#11 Laki Fissure Eruption
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Largest fissure (lava flow), major health problems (toxic haze), hydrofluoric acid |
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#10 Novarupta |
Largest in 20th century "valley of 10,000 smokes" |
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#9 Krakatau
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Final explosion considered to be the loudest sound in recorded history |
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#8 Mazama |
Largest part holds crater lake formation, composite collapse |
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#7 Santorini |
May inspired legend of Atlantis
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#6 Taupo
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Highly explosive known to volcanologists, extreme violence, huge pyroclastic flows over adjacent mountains |
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#5 Tambora
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Largest eruption in recorded history, caldera, "year without summer" (blocked out sun, freezing cold climate, killed a culture) |
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#4 Long Valley Caldera
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#3 Yellowstone Caldera
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Ash deposits cover central U.S. |
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#2 Toba |
Largest explosive eruption 25 million years ago with drastic impacts on climate |
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#1 La Garita Caldera |
Largest known explosive eruptions in history (26-28 million years ago) |
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Crater Lake
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Explosive, empty magma out, collapse composite volcano (Mazama), deepest lake in North America, 7,700 years erupted, lake is from melted ice and water |
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Yellowstone Caldera
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Collapse large area where land collapsed, discharge of large volume of felsic pyroclastic along fractures, still active, no pattern to predict eruptions, world's largest hydrothermal system, hotspots (future: Yellowstone will not be active), forming caldera volcano |
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Hydrothermal System
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Magma close to surface, large concentrated geysers, explosions risky (earthquake trigger) |
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Ring Fractures (Yellowstone)
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Ring shaped eruptions, volcano collapse, crust sinks, opening more fractures, catastrophic impacts, creating caldera |
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Flood Basalts
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ex: Columbia river basalts |
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Shield Volcano examples
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Mauna Loa and Kilauea (Hawaii) hotspots
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Composite Cone examples
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Cascades, Ring of Fire (subduction zones) |
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Cinder Cone example
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Wizard Island, Lava Butte |
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Viscosity in the three volcanoes
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Composite: steep-side, high viscosity Shield: less steep, low viscosity |
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Triggers of Mt. Saint Helens
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Volcanic landslides at the summit, mini earthquakes under surface, bulge growing on side |
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Caldera Types
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Yellowstone: pyroclastic material and gas discharged along ring fractures= collapse (hotspot) Shield: magma to outer flanks= roof collapse= fissure eruptions |
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What do the catastrophic eruptions of Pinatubo, Tambora, and Novarupta all have in common?
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All formed calderas, erupted magma (felsic), located on subduction zones, result of high viscosity magma
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What type of igneous intrusion is a vertical slide?
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Dike
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Which pluton rock is massive intrusion that covers more than 100 km2?
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Batholith (extensive plutons, granitic)
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What is the term used for pyroclastic fragments that are larger than ash but smaller than walnuts?
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Lapilli
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Which of the magma composition will have the highest silica content?
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Felsic (explosive and rhyolite) |
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Which of the magma compositions will have the highest viscosity? |
Felsic (explosive and rhyolite)
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Nonexplosive eruptions of magma composition?
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Mafic (basaltic)
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What type of basalt lava flow sideways lumpy lava?
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Pahoehoe
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What type of basalt lava flow is jagged and sharp lava?
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Aa |
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Which would produce the shortest, thickest lava flows? |
Felsic
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Magma Compositions and Lava Flows
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Felsic: thick, short lava flows (playdoh), lava domes Intermediate: mix, lava domes Mafic: runny, fast lava flows (liquidy) |
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What kind of eruptions do shield volcanoes produce?
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Not explosive, ooze out lava, mostly lava (no pyroclastic thrusts) |
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Composition of lava flows from shield volcanoes?
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Mafic (not explosive), runny magma
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What is composite volcano composed of?
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Both pyroclastic material and lava flows |
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What is a cinder volcano composed of?
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Pyroclastic materials |
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What is a shield volcano composed of? |
Lava flows |
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Composite volcanoes are the product of the eruption of: (viscosity)?
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High viscosity magma
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Composite vs Shield Compositions
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Composite: (intermediate to felsic) greater viscosity, steep slopes Shield: (mafic) lower viscosity, gentle slopes |
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Will cinder cone volcanoes erupt again?
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No |
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What type of plate boundary are composite on?
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Convergent (subduction zones) |
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Avalanche of hot gases infused with glowing hot ash and rock fragments?
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Pyroclastic flows |
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Major eruption of Mt. Saint Helens?
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Massive landslide, followed by blast from side of volcano
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Silica and Color
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Mafic: darkest, low in silica, high melting temp |
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Magma compositions in volcanic flows
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Composite: intermediate (andesite) Shield: mafic (basalt) Cinder: felsic (granitic) (rhyolite) |
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Most Explosive Magma compositions when they contain abundant gases
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High silica Greatest viscosity Explosive caldera (magma) (Yellowstone) |
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Moderate explosive magma compositions when they contain abundant gases
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Pyroclastic portion of composite cones (cascade) |
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Least explosive magma compositions when they contain abundant gases
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Low silica Lowest viscosity Cinder cones (lava butte, wizard island) |
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Magma compositions containing low amounts of gas
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Intermediate: short, thick flows (composite cones) Mafic: extensive fluid-like flows (shield volcanoes) |
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Mafic (basalt) High vs Low gases
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Low: shield volcanoes |
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Volcanic arcs magma composition
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Composite volcanoes (intermediate, andesite)
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