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93 Cards in this Set

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  • Back
what is nutrition?
the essentials needed to conduct life: starting point for all human form & functions
what is body weight & appetite controlled by?
peptide hormones & regulatory pathways (some gut-brain peptides)
what are gut-brain peptides?
hormones that act as chemical signals from gastrointestinal tract to brain
what are short term appetite regulators?
Ghrelin, Peptide YY (PYY), & Cholecystokinin (CCK)
What is the function of Ghrelin?
produces hunger by stimulating the hypothalamus to produce growth-hormone-releasing hormone
Where does Ghrelin come from?
it is secreted by parietal cells in stomach
Where does Cholecystokinin come from?
secreted from enteroendocrine cells in duodenum & jejunum
What is the function of Peptide YY?
acts as and "ileal brake" prevents stomach from emptying too quickly prolonging sense of satiety
Where does the Peptide YY come from?
secreted by the enteroendocrine cells in small intestine and ileum (colon)
What is the function of Cholecystokinin?
suppresses appetite by stimulating secretion of bile & pancreatic enzymes (works in conjunction with PYY)
What are long term appetite regulators?
Leptin & Insulin
How do long term regulators function?
by negative feedback governing average calorie intake & energy expenditure over weeks-years working as adiposity signals activating mechanisms for adding/ reducing fat
What is Leptin?
Peptide that lets the brain know how much fat we have
Where does Leptin come from?
secreted by adipocytes
What are adiposity signals?
signals that long term regulators send to the brain to inform how much adipose tissue the body has
How is Insulin an appetite regulator?
Stimulates glucose & amino acid uptake (for energy) & Promotes glycogen & fat synthesis. Also pulls glucose out of blood to metabolize
What is the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus?
involved in hunger & satiety. Secrete Neuropeptide Y (NPY) & Melanocortin. All peptides in appetite regulation have receptors in the arcuate nucleus.
what is the function of Neuropeptide Y (NPY)?
appetite stimulant (hunger)
What is the function of Melanocortin?
inhibits eating (satiety)
What governs the appetite for specific nutrients? (cravings)
neurotransmitters. different ones for each class of nutrients
What stimulates the appetite for carbs?
Norepinephrine
What stimulates the appetite for fatty foods?
Galanin (neurotransmitter)
What stimulates the appetite for proteins?
Endorphins
What are calories?
the amount of heat needed to raise the temp of 1 degree of water by 1 degree c
1000 calories=
1 Calorie (capital C) in dietetics or 1 Kcal in biochemistry
what is a nutrient?
any ingested chemical that is used for growth, repair, or maintenance of the body
What are hydrophobic, yet must be transported to all cells of the body?
Lipids
What are lipoproteins?
tiny droplets with core of cholesterol & tryglycerides, & coating of proteins & phospholipids.
What are the function of the protein & phospholipid coatings on lipoproteins?
enables lipids to remain suspended in the blood but also serves as a recognition marker for cells that absorb them
What are the 4 major classes of lipoproteins?
Chylomicron, VLDL, LDL, & HDL. The higher the proportion of protein to lipid, the higher the density
What are monounsaturated fats?
(oils), 2 electrons shared, mono= 1 change, poly= many changes. Weaker bonds that digest easier because less energy is used to break down
What are saturated fats?
solids (butter), 4 electrons shared therefore stronger bond & requires more energy to break down
What are essential nutrients?
Nutrients that we must ingest because the body is incapable of synthesized on its own: minerals, most vitamins, 8 of the amino acids, & 1 fatty acid
What are vitamins?
proteins & enzymes
What are fat soluble vitamins?
A, D, E, K, and they deposit into adipose for various functions
What are water soluble vitamins?
C & B. absorb with water from small intestine, dissolve freely, & are excreted by kidneys, cannot be stored
what is hypervitaminosis?
a lethal vitamin A overdose
Functions of the liver in metabolism & synthesis:
Metabolizes carbs, lipids, proteins, vitamins/ minerals. Synthesizes plasma proteins, bile acids, & lecithin. Detoxes drugs, toxins, & hormones. Phagocytosis: macrophages cleanse blood of bacteria & other foreign matter
What is fuel referred to in metabolism?
a chemical oxidized solely or primarily to extract energy from it
What is anabolism?
Any metabolic reactions that USE energy to Synthesize molymers with higher free energy to polymers with lower free energy (example: synthesis of proteins from amino acids)
What is Catabolism?
Any metabolic reaction that MAKES energy & BREAKS DOWN polymers with higher free energy to monomers with lower free energy (example: digestion & glycosis)
What is metabolism?
Ingested molecules chemically changed to form their own structures, control their physiology, or provide energy. (Anabolism & Catabolism make up Metabolism)
What is cellular respiration?
using glucose to make energy by chemical reactions
What is the only organism that can to decide to maintain the cellular respiration/photosynthesis cycle?
humans
What does the abbreviation ATP stand for?
Adenosine Triphosphate
What is ATP made of?
it is a nucleic acid made of Adenine (base), Ribose (sugar), & 3 Phosphate (mono, di, & si)
What makes ATP so unique?
it is 3 negatively charged ions bonded together. (jack in box) bond breaks easily
What does ALL food digest to?
Glucose (which makes energy)
How many ATP are made with 1 molecule of glucose?
36
What is Chemiosmosis?
using chemicals to make water & ATP
What is Cristae?
the membranes of mitchondria
3 major pathways of glucose catabolism are:
Glycolysis, Anaerobic Fermentation, & Aerobic Respiration
What is glycolysis?
splitting of glucose molecule into 2 pyruvic acid molecules. Uses 2 ATP to make 4 ATP. Net is +2 ATP
What is necessary for glycolysis?
food
What is anaerobic fermentation?
occurs in ABSENCE of oxygen. Reduces pyruvic acid to lactic acid, & Regenerates NAD+ so glycolysis can continue to function
What is aerobic respiration?
in PRESENCE of oxygen. Oxidizes pyruvic acid to CO2 and H2O (produces most ATP of cellular respiration)
The Krebs Cycle is also known as?
the Citric Acid Cycle or TCA
What is the function of Krebs Cycle?
Uses 2 pyruvic acids (made from glycolysis) to make 2 Kreb Cycles generating 1 ATP per cycle (total of 2 ATP)
What is necessary for Krebs Cycle to function?
water
What is Acetyl-CoA?
3 pyruvic acid minus Co2 used as entree to Krebs Cycle
What is Citric Acid?
(C6) beginning of Krebs Cycle. Acetyl-CoA + C4 compound= C6
How do we get nucleotides?
ingesting cells. We digest DNA in nucleus & RNA in cytoplasm to nucleotides & use them (anabolism) to make DNA & RNA
When the brain feeds on keytone bodies (amino acids) because you are not ingesting them, the body goes into a state of ketoacidsis. This means you are:
Anorexic
What is ketoacidsis?
bypassing Glycosis & going straight into other cycles
Where does electron transport take place?
in the cristae
What is succinate?
FADH2= electron carrier
What is the electron transport & chemiosmosis process?
electrons carried to cristae & jump until they get oxygen. Each jump makes ATP. Oxygen is final accepter. Uses oxygen to form H2o. 32 ATP made
Energy storers in order from 1st to last are:
carb stores, fat stores, then protein stores
What is Oxidative Respiration?
electron transport & chemiosmosis, & Kreb cycle producing 34 ATP total. Aerobic
What is Pyruvate Anaerobic?
makes lactic acid, ethyl, & CO2 by fermentation producing 2 ATP
What is Pyruvate Aerobic?
makes 34 ATP by oxidative respiration
How many ATP are made for each molecule of glucose with Aerobic exercise?
34 ATP
What is Glycogenesis?
making glycogen (stimulated by insulin)
What is Glycogenolysis?
the Hydrolysis of Glycogen, releases glucose between meals when its not being ingested (stimulated by Glucagon & Norepinephrine
What is Glyconeogenesis?
Synthesis of Glucose from Non-Carbs such as Fats & Amino Acids (Keto Acids) Occurs in liver but if fasting for many weeks kidneys begin process as well
What is Glycogen?
Chain of Glucose
What is Lipolysis?
Breaking down fat for fuel
What is Lipogenesis?
Synthesizing fats from other types of molecules. (Acetyl-CoA can be diverted to make fatty acids & sugars. Amino acids can divert glycerol all combining to make Tryglycerides/fats
If there is still enough glucose in the blood after the body has enough ATP, what does the glucose now convert to?
Glycogen & Fat because they store energy (Glycogenesis, Gluconeogenesis, & Lipogenesis)
What is a Keto Acid?
an amino acid deaminated (-NH2 group removed)
Keto Acid can be converted to ____, _____, or ____ depending on which amino acid is involved in making the Keto Acid.
Pyruvic acid, Acetyl-CoA, or one of the acids in Krebs Cycle
-NH2 is deaminated from Keto Acid & transferred to Krebs Cycle intermediate, _____, converting it to _______.
Ketoglutaric acid, Glutamic acid
What are Glutamic Acids?
Major amino acids that travel to liver where -NH2 group os removed converting it back to Ketoglutaric Acid
When -NH2 is removed from Glutamic Acid in liver, it becomes _______.
Ammonia (NH3)
Livers converts NH3 to _______ by way of _______ Cycle.
Urea, Ornithine
What is Deamination?
removal of a amino group
What is Amination?
the addition of -NH2
What is Transamination?
the transfer of -NH2 from one molecule to another
What is Thermoregulation?
homeostasis. the balance between heat production & loss
What is Hypothalamic Thermostat?
Monitors temp in blood & skin. receives signals from peripheral thermoreceptors in skin & sends signals to heat losing/ promoting center
What is heat promoting center?
SNS- Cutaneous Vasoconstriction, stimulates pilli arrecter muscles. If those do not work body starts Shivering Thermogenesis (short term), & Nonshivering Thermogenesis (seasonal) SNS & thyroid hormone increase in metabolic rate
What is heat losing center?
Stimulates Cutaneous Vasodilation increasing blood flow to body surface promotes heat loss. If that fails it triggers sweating & inhibits heat promoting
What is Behavior Thermoregulation?
Getting out of sun, removing heavy clothing