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163 Cards in this Set

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What are 5 general characteristics of DNA?

DNA is:


1- made of nucleotides


2- connects these to form strands (polynucleotide)


3- strands must be double (complementary b-p)


4- Strands require a backbone (S & P)


5- twists to form a helix


What is gene expression?

Gene expression is the process of:


1-splitting a specific portion of DNA (gene),


2-copying/decoding the instructions


3-producing a new protein based on the specific gene


What processes are involved to express a gene in a cell?

- transcription


- processing


- translation (initiation, elongation, .....)


Where is DNA located in Eukaryotic Cells?

- In the Nucleus and (in small amounts) in the Mitochondria


What are three aspects of DNA that make it invaluable to inheritance?

It has the ability to:


1- replicate


2- store information


3- undergo mutations


What does semi-conservative replication refer to?

1) This refers to DNA replication.


2) Because when DNA replicates, it keeps one original strand and copies a new one to match the original.


True or false?


The strands that are paired and spiraled, forming the double helix, are called nucleotides.

FALSE


- These strands are called polynucleotides, because they are composed of many nucleotides


How many Hydrogen bonds form between Adenine and Thymine?

- There are 2 hydrogen bonds between Adenine and Thymine,




How many hydrogen bonds form between Cytosine and Guanine?

3 hydrogen bonds form between Cytosine and Guanine.




What types of RNA are involved in coding?

just messenger RNA (it is translated into protein


What types of RNA are considered non-coding?

- ribosomal RNA


- transfer RNA


- small RNA


What type of sugar is found in a RNA peptide?


How is it different from a DNA sugar?

- ribose sugar


- it has no Oxygen (unlike deoxyribose)


What is responsible for splitting the double helix, thus starting the process of Transcription.

An enzyme called RNA Polymerase.


What is the purpose of Transcription?

Transcription begins the process of gene expression.


- It refers to the copying of a specific gene (segment of DNA), which is processed and sent to the rRNA as a set of instructions for creating a new protein.


After Transcription, how does pre-RNA (Primary RNA) become mature RNA?

A process called Processing takes place:


(1) the transcribed RNA has an altered Guanine nucleotide added to one end of the strand (=cap). Meanwhile, multiple Adenosine nucleotides are added to the opposite end (=tail)


(2) Splicing occurs = The introns are removed and the exons are joined.


(this splicing is accomplished by a ribozyme (sRNA, which functions as an enzyme) which is paired to a protein.


(3) - processing could be respoinsible for different outcomes in DNA coding.

Mem. Trick:


-Iguanas have caps = specialized guanine caps the preRNA.


-add on tail = adenosine sequence is added to form the tail


Where does Transcription take place?

Nucleus


Where does RNA processing take place?

Nucleus


What is another name for Translation?


What are the stages of Translation?

Polypeptide Synthesis


(1) Initiation


(2) Elongation


(3) Termination


What is Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)?

The structural component of a ribosome (2 subunits)


What is mRNA?

Messenger RNA -


- It is the product of Transcription + Processing.


- Each mRNA contains instructions for producing a specific protein.


- It is the boss-man of translation


What is tRNA

It connects to the A site in the ribosome during translation, and it brings amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosome, according to the instructions of the mRNA


- It is the delivery boy during tranlsation


codons vs anticodons?

Codons are a chain of 3 nucleotides (1) that make up the base sequence of mRNA. (2) Each codon is a set of instructions for a specific amino acid. (3) The sequence of these codons on an mRNA dictates the order of amino acids that will be attached to the new protein during polypeptide synthesis. (4)


Anticodons are complementary to codons (5)and are found on tRNA. (6) They allow the tRNA to pick up the correct amino acid from the cytoplasm (7)


What is/are the general functions(s) of protein?

It's general functions are aiding (on the cellular level) with:


- metabolism


- transportation


- regulation


- motion



(enzymes, antibodies, hormones, structural elements)


What are the major elements of proteins?

C, H, O, N, sometimes S


What are the elements of an amino acid?

- Hydrogen


- Amino Group H-2N


- Acid Group COOH


- R Group


- carbon


How many amino acids are there?

20


True or false?


The polymer of proteins is the polypeptide.

True




Which type of protein structure is fully folded and globular with a single polypeptide?

Tertiary Structure


Which type of protein structure has local folding in the form of sheets and helixes?

Secondary Structure


True or False?


The shape of a protein is not always relevant to its function.

False


The shape of a protein is what defines its function (substrate binding)


What are the major elements of Nucleic Acids?

C, H, O, P, N


Which of the following is the monomer of Nucleic Acids?


- Amino Acid


- Peptide


- Nucleotide


- Codon

Nucleotide


True or False?


The polymer of a Nucleic Acid is the polypeptide.

False.


The polymer of a Nucleic Acid is the polynucleotide


What are the major elements of Lipids?

C, H, O


Sometimes P?


What are the general functions of lipids?

- energy storage (long term i.e. fat)


- Insulation (fat)


- structure of cellular membranes


- produces hormones (i.e. Adipose produces a hormone that controls appetite, steroids also produce hormones like testosterone and HGH)


What are the 4 general types of lipid?

1&2- fats/oils (i.e. animals/plants)


3 - Phospholipids (cellular membrane)


4 - Steroids


What is the monomer of fats? What is its structure??

Fats have no monomer, however they have functional units= Triglyceride


= Glyceride Head, three fatty acid tails



True or False?


The tails of triglycerides and phospholipids are composed of hydrocarbons.

True


(these hydrocarbons are also known as fatty acids)


True or False?


Animal fat has an unsaturated molecular structure and is a solid substance at room temperature.

False


- Animal fat is a form of saturated fat


True or False?


Oils found in plants have an unsaturated molecular structure and are a liquid at room temperature.

True


What is the difference between a saturated fatty acid and an unsaturated fatty acid?

- saturated fatty acids contain the maximum # of hydrogen atoms, which form ONLY single bonds (think of Chemistry = covalent purine bonds)


- Meanwhile unsaturated fatty acids contain fewer hydrogen atoms and contain a double or triple bond.

*saturated = full of liquid= think *water (H20)- what is water saturated with?= 2 hydrogens!

True or False?


Animal based fats are the only naturally occuring form of fatty acid.

False


Oils from plants ALL contain fatty acids, as it is a major component of all triglycerides

- What are fatty acids in?


= eggs, meat, hempseed


- therefore fatty acids are in both animals and plants.

True or False


The difference between phospholipids and oils are the number of Hydrocarbon tails.

False:


That is true, but it is not the only difference.


- Phospolipids also have 1 Phosphate

*It's not a tri-, but its also a:


Phospo-!

True or false?


the monomer of fat is a triglyceride

False:


Fats have no monomer.


They have functional units


True or False?


The functional unit of a steroid is a carbon ring.

False:


The functional unit of a steroid is 4 carbon rings.

*Olymipic Rings

name four examples of common steroids

- estrogen


- testosterone


- HGH


- Vitamin D


- Lepitin (released by adipose cells)

True or False?


The monomer of Carbohydrates is a Carbon Ring

True:


Another name for these individual carbon rings is:


monosaccharide

True or False?


The polymer of a carbohydrate is a dissacharide/

True:


The disaccharide (two monosaccharides/2 fused carbon rings) is known as the dimer of a carbohydrate., which is technically a polymer (more than one) However it is not the ONLY form of carb polymer.

What is the polymer of a carbohydrate?

Polysaccharide (many carbon rings / many monosaccharides)

What is maltose?

2 glucose


- This is a dissacharide

Beer = 2 good (2 glucose)

What is Galactose?

- galactose is a carbohydrate monosaccharide which bonds with glucose to form lactose (a disaccharide)

Galactic = milky way


= looks like sugar in the sky, but is also galactic


= galactose + glucose = lactose

Name three examples of disaccharides and their components.

- maltose = glucose x2


- Lactose = glucose + galactose


- sucrose = glucose + Fructose

What are three kitchen staples?


- milk


- beer


- sugar

Name three examples of polysaccharides and examples of their natural form

- Starch - glucose storage in plants


- Glycogen - temp. glucose storage in animals


- Cellulose- structural element in plants

- polysaccharides = complex sugar sources


="raw nature"/"non-processed"


- cows eat grass (cellulose)


- man eats bagel (starch)


- vampire drinks blood (glycogen = sugar in blood)

What is the general function of Carbohydrates?

- Immediate (short term) energy


- structure (carbs in phospholipid bilayer)

what are the major elements of carbohydrates?

CHO


(carbs are 6 carbon rings, containing CHO)


Alternate forms of a particular gene appearing at the same position on a pair of chromosomes.

Allele


A pair of alleles that are the same.

Homozygous


An allele whose effect will always show up in the phenotype

Dominant


If a boy has hemophilia, from which parent did he get the defective gene?

mother



Because hemophilia is an x-linked trait, this trait is only carried on x-chromosomes. Because we know the hemophiliac is a boy, we know that he received a Y-chromosome from his father. So, we know that the defective gene must have been from the x-chromosome of the mother. (Draw a punnet square for more detail)

The backbone of DNA and RNA is made of these two alternating molecules:

- phosphate


- Sugar (ribose = RNA, deoxyribose = DNA)


Nitrogenous base that links with cytosine in DNA:

Guanine


Nitrogenous base that replaces thymine in RNA:

Uracil


Piece of DNA in the chromosome that codes for one protein:

gene


First part of protein synthesis (gene expression) is called:

Transcription


Molecule that picks up amino acids and brings them to the correct place at the ribosome for protein synthesis:

transfer RNA


Molecule that carries a copy of the genetic code from the chromosomes in the nucleus to the ribosome for protein synthesis:

messenger (mature) RNA


Sequence of 3 nitrogenous bases in mRNA that codes for one amino acid:

codon



*remember (mRNA = codon, tRNA = anticodon)

Type of reaction in which water is added to break down a large molecule

Hydrolysis (allows for the process of catabolism)


Single Sugar:

Monosaccharide


Storage form of sugar in plants:

Starch (polysaccharide)


Fatty acids found in plants:

Unsaturated


Double sugar

Disaccharide


(dimer of carbohydrates)


Fatty acids with the maximum # of hydrogen atoms present (all single bonds)

Saturated


(only present in triglycerides? = fats + oils)


Disaccharide made up of 2 glucose molecules joined:

maltose

2-good = beer (maltose) =


2-glucose

Storage form of glucose in humans

Glycogen


Name one fat soluble vitamin

K, A, D, E


List the elements found in protein

C,H,O,N,S




Building blocks of protein:

Amino Acids


Made up of glycerol and 3 fatty acids

Triglyceride


Complex Carbohydrate; made up of many simple sugars joined:

Polysaccharide


Building Blocks of nucleic acids

nucleotides


Level of protein organization that refers to the order in which the amino acids appear

Primary Structure


Diasaccharide made up of glucose and fructose:

Sucrose


Organic molecules needed in small amounts by body; often functions as coenzymes:

Vitamins



coenzymes = enzyme helpers


Vitamins are helpers, whereas minerals carry out a variety of functions.

Peristalsis

- Contractions of smooth muscles in the digestive organs (esophagus, intestine) that help move ingested food through the digestive tract

Pharynx

"the throat"


- Funnel Shaped


-connects the nasal and oral cavities to the Larynx


- It is usually open (allows movement of air)


- made of 3 parts:


1- Nasopharynx


2- Oropharynx


3- Laryngopharynx

Esophagus

-Muscular tube that moves food to the stomach (via peristalsis)


-located in center of thoracic cavity


- lies posterior to the trachea

Epiglottis

- A cover that blocks the opening to the air passage (Glottis) when we swallow food

Bolus

Refers to the ball of food that is formed by the tongue when food is being chewed.

Chyme

Refers to the state of food when it leaves the stomach.


- thick, soupy, partially digested

Sphincter (cardiac vs pyloric)

= Muscles that encircle tubes and act as valves


> pyloric = valve between the stomach and the small intestine


>> it squeezes most chyme back into the stomach, only allowing a small amount into the s. intestine @ a time.


Cardiac = esophageal sphincter = connects esophagus to stomach


True or false?


the pancreas releases both enzymes and chemicals into the digestive tract.

True

True or false?


The liver releases both enzymes and chemicals into the digestive tract.

False,


the liver only releases bile (a chemical)

What enzymes are released from the pancreas?

Pancreatic Amylase


Tripase


Nuclease


Lipase

Amy


trips & hurts her


knuckles &


lips

what are the chemicals released by the pancreas and what do they do?

Insulin, regulates glucose levels in bloodstream


Bicarbonate, raises pH (which is low because of stomach acid)

Name the brush border enzymes released from the small intestine and what they catabolize.

Peptidase - Polypeptides


Nucleosidase - Nucleotides


Sucrase - sucrose (disaccharide)


Maltase - maltose (di)


lactase - lactose (di)



Where is insulin secreted from?

The pancreas

>What duct connects the pancreas to the small intestine?


>Which part of the small intestine is it attached to?

> Pancreatic


>Duodenum

Describe villi

small folds in the walls of the small intestine which maximize the surface area for the purpose of nutrient absorption.

What is the name of the vein that carries nutrients from the blood capillary to the liver for storage?

Hepatic Portal Vein

Fats are broken down by ___________ to yield _____________ & ________________.

lipase,


monoglycerides,


Free fatty acids

what is another name for a lymphatic capillary?

Lacteal

what are the four main sections of the colon?

ascending


transverse


descending


sigmoid

-----------------------------------------------

-----------------------------------------------

Ring of muscle between esophagus and stomach

Cardiac sphincter


(a.k.a Esophageal sphincter)

First section of the small intestine:

Duodenum


Enzyme produced in the stomach which digests protein (active form)

pepsin

think pepsi! it goes in your stomach!

Enzyme which breaks down fat

lipase

*fats = lipid

Food, when it leaves the stomach, is called:

chyme


Blood vessel carrying blood from around the small intestine to the liver:

Hepatic Portal Vein


Enzyme which digests sucrose

sucrase


(this is a brush border enzyme secreted by small intestine = breaks disaccharides into monosaccharides)

enzyme which digests maltose

maltase


(second stage = breaks disaccharides into monosaccharides)

needed to activate pepsin (turns pepsinogen into pepsin)

HCL acid (stomach acid)


- the pepsin enzyme only works in low pH conditions (around 2)


enzyme produced by the small intestine that breaks down peptides into amino acids

peptidase


stores bile:

gall bladder


Accessory gland in the digestive system that produces enzymes which digest all types of food:

Pancreas


Part of the digestive system which mainly absorbs water:

large intestine


Enzyme produced by pancreas which digests protein:

trypsin


(complex protein is turned into polypeptide)

Remember the Pancreas rhyme:


-Amy


-trips & hurts her


-lips &


-knuckles

Part of digestive system where most absorption of end-products of digestion occurs:

small intestine


(villi help with this stage)

remember that the villi are in the small intestine, because this is where most absorption occurs

End-product of protein digestion:

amino acid


Substance produced by the liver which emulsifies fat:

bile


Enzyme found in saliva:

Salivary Amylase


(produced by salivary glands)


soft ball of food mixed with saliva formed in mouth:

Bolus


Inner layer of the wall of the GI tract that produces mucus:

Mucosa


Flap of tissue that closes over the trachea when swallowing:

Epiglottis


Waves of muscluar contraction that move food through the digestive tract:

Peristalsis


Common passageway to the digestive and respiratory systems:

Pharynx

What are 4 X-linked abnormalities?

- Colourblindness


- Hemophilia


- Duchenne Muscluar Distrophy


- Fragile X

Describe polygenic inheritance and list an example.

Polygenic Inheritance is a form of Complex Inheritence.


- It refers to 1 genetic trait being governed by 2 or more alleles.


- For example, height is a form of polygenic inheritance since there is such diversity in height, whereas the trait for hitch-hiker's thumb is less diverse.

What is a multifactoral trait and list an example

A multifactoral trait is a form of Complex Inheritance.


- It refers to alleles that are influenced by the environment


Examples:


> Himalayan rabbits turn white when exposed to low temperatures


> Type 2 diabetes is expressed due to unhealthy food/lack of exercise



List 5 types of Complex Inheritance:

1) Multifactoral Inheritance


- Himalayan bunnies


2) Polygenic Inheritance


- variance in height


3) Codominant Inheritance


- yellow and red flowers on a Liatris


4) Incomplete Dominance


- red pansy and white pansy create offspring with pink flowers


5) Sex-linked inheritence

mem trick:


> Bunnies (environment adaptation)


>>, Flowers (mix & match colours)


>>> Polygamy (there's too many alleles!)

Name the layers of the digestive tract:

1 - Mucosa


2 - sub-mucosa


3- muscularis


4 - Serosa



What are the characteristics of the sub-mucosa layer of the GI tract?

- It contains nerves, blood vessels & lymphatic vessels

What are characteristics of the muscularis layer of the GI tract?

> It is composed of 2 layers of Smooth Muscle


>> It is responsible for peristalsis

What are characteristics of the Serosa layer of the GI tract?

> It is thin


>> It is the outermost layer of the GI tract

What is Polymerase?

Polymerase (a.k.a. RNA polymerase) is an enzyme responsible for splitting the DNA double helix, which begins the process of transcription

What is Nucleosidase?

> Nucleosidase is a brush border enzyme secreted from the small intestine.


>>It completes the breakdown of DNA/RNA


>>> Nucleotides split into Phosphate, Sugar, Base

What are the enzymes responsible for the complete breakdown of protein, and from where are they secreted?

>Pepsin (mucosa of stomach) breaks complex proteins into polypeptides


>>Trypsin (Pancreas) breaks complex proteins into polypeptide


>>>Peptidase (small intestine) breaks polypeptides into amino acids


> Why does a protein not function after it has been denatured?


>>What are two causes of denaturation?


>>>what is an example of this?

- because proteins rely on structure in order to properly function. Proteins have very specific functions, and the variations between proteins are specified by variations in the R-group.


- When denaturation occurs it is because of a disturbance to the normal bonding of the R group


>> 2 causes of this are extreme heat or pH


>>> examples:


- milk curdles in vinegar


- egg white coagulates on frying-pan

Which level of protein structure is characterized by alpha and beta sheets in which hydrogen bonding holds the shape in place?

secondary structure

Monomer

a single unit of a macro-molecule

What is the approximate ratio of Hydrogen to Oxygen molecules in Carbohydrates?

2:1


(same as water)

After eating a bagel, what hormone will be released to convert glucose into glycogen for temporary storage?

Insulin


(from the pancreas)

What organ stockpiles glucose so it can release it into the bloodstream between meals? Also what concentration of glucose in the blood is normal?

Liver


> Keeps glucose concentration around 0.1%

True or False?


Phospolipids are ionized.

True

* remember hydrophillic / hydrophobic

True or False?


Lipids are ionized.

False


They are electrically neutral

What is the link between two amino acids called?


& where do the a-as bond?

Peptide bond


-between the amine and acid groups. This results in the formation of water... Because it is a dehydration reaction (anabolism).... Couldnt we also say its a neutralization reaction????

how many amino acids are required to form a polypeptide?

three

True or false?


The atoms of the peptide bond share the electrons evenly.

False


- Oxygen has a greater electronegativity than Hydrogen, so the bond is held closer to the Oxygen (acid group) than the Hydrogen (amine group)

What part of an amino acid is affected when we say it has "denatured"?

Denatured means that the normal bonding between the R-groups have been disturbed

where and how do peptide bond form?

Between the ACID group and the AMINE group


>> this bond is a form of anabolism, so a dehydration reaction takes place: and produces 1 molecule of H20


>>OH from the COOH (acid g) and H from the H2N (amine g) are released to form this H20


True or False?


In genetics, if two parents who are unaffected have a child that is affected, then the parents are both considered bearers.

FALSE

Typically this logic applies:


>>>because they don't show a trait but pass it on, the trait must be recessive. The only way for a recessive trait to exert itself is if it is homozygous recessive (meaning one recessive allele from each parent)


HOWEVER:


>>>This logic doesn't apply in the case of x-linked traits, for example, when a boy gets colourblindness, all that is needed for this recessive trait to exert itself is one colourblind gene from the mother.

As RNA is being made, it is exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm for translation

False


>it is transported to the ribosome (rRNA) for translation

Which of the following represents a gamete with a dominant allele?


>A


>Aa


>AA


>b


>bb

A

*remember that gametes DO NOT contain PAIRS of chromosomes

In a DNA molecule, what holds together the nitrogenous bases from the two polymer chains?

Hydrogen Bonds

What are two common features that all molecules of life have?

1> Hydrocarbons (Skeleton of H-C)


2 > Functional Groups (Often contains Oxygen: is an additional group that participates in reactions)

What are 4 different structural variations that can differentiate the molecules of life?

- Functional Groups


- Various lengths


- rings


- Branched or unbranched

True or False?


The R-groups of amino acids are always polar and ionized.

False

True or False?


The R-groups of amino acids are the only part of the amino acids that differs from on to the other.

True

What is significant about the tertiary structure of protein?


>> what maintains the tertiary structure?



- At this stage the shape/function is determined


- Bonding between the R-groups maintains this tertiary shape


- Bonding includes covalent, hydrogen, &/or ionic

> What type of bonding maintains the secondary shape of proteins?


>> What type of shapes are created?



> The slightly negative charge of the acid group (now CO) attracts the slightly positive amine group (now NH), resulting in a Hydrogen Bond


>> These hydrogen bonds create beta sheets OR alpha helix's.

> What type of bonding occurs to create a primary protein structure?


>> what type of shape is created?

> Peptide bonding occurs between the COOH (acid group) and H2N (amine group) of individual amino acids


>> This bonding releases water (dehydration) and results in linear strands of polypeptides

True or False?


Alleles always come in sets of two.

True!