Dm Biological Basis Eppp

Front 1

What are the two main subdivisions of the perpipheral nervous system (PNS)?

Back 1

PNS consists of the nerves that go to and from the brain and spinal cord (cranial nerves, spinal nerves and peripheral ganglia).
1. somatic nervous system
2. autonomic nervous system

Front 2

What types of sensory messages are sent and received from the somatic nervous system?

Back 2

those that control voluntary muscle movement of the skeletal (striated) muscles.

Front 3

What types of sensory messages are sent and received from the autonomic nervous system?

Back 3

those that control more automatic or involuntary bodily functions of the smooth muscles and glands (digestion, heart rate)

Front 4

What is the primary function of the ANS and what two systems does it include?

Back 4

Function of ANS - maintain homeostasis. consists of sympathetic nervous systems and the parasympathetic nervous system.

Front 5

What are the functions of the sympathetic nervous system?

Back 5

"mobilizing" the system - fight or flight. It takes over when someone is under stress, will send hormones into blood stream

Front 6

What is the parasympathetic nervous system and its functions?

Back 6

"Energy conserving" system. Dominant when a person is relaxed. Main function is basic body maintenance - slowing heart rate, blood pressure, respiration.

Front 7

What is the role of biofeedback in the autonomic nervous system (ANS)?

Back 7

Focused on helping people decrease sympathetic arousal and increase parasympathetic system - relaxation.

Front 8

CNS - Central nervous system - consists of which type of nerves?

Back 8

Sensory or afferent neurons that carry information into the CNS.
Motor neuroons that carry info away from CNS to muscles and glands.

Front 9

What are the 4 regions of the spine and consequences to damage in these areas?

Back 9

Cervical: C1-C7; damage between C1-C5 = quadriplegia
Severing C6-7 and lower is paraplegia
Thoracic: T1-T12
Lumbar: L1-L5
Sacral (S1 for all areas)
"Paresis" muscle weakness

Front 10

What are the 3 major divisions of the brain?

Back 10

1. Cerebrum (cerebral cortex and subcortical areas)
2. Cerebellum
3. Brain Stem

Front 11

What are the 2 layers of the cerebrum?

Back 11

Outer layer is the cerebral cortex - divided into halves and lobes.
Inner layer is the subcortical areas.

Front 12

What are the dominant functions of the cerebral left hemisphere?

Back 12

Language functions. Also associated with being rational, analytical, logical and abstract. Left hemispher dominant in 97% of people.

Front 13

What are the dominant functions of the cerebral right hemisphere?

Back 13

Perceptual, visuospatial, artistic, musical, and intuitive activities. Also emotion.

Front 14

What are the dominant functions of the cerebral frontal lobes?

Back 14

Critical to personality, emotionality, inhibition, planning and initiative, abstract thinking, judgment and higher mental functions (e.g., cognitive flexibility)

Front 15

How does the posterior aspect of the frontal lobe influence movement and speech?

Back 15

The motor control area, at the back of the frontal lobes involves instigating voluntary movement. Broca's area is located here on the left and controls the muscles that produce speech.

Front 16

What are the key functions of the cerebral parietal lobes?

Back 16

Primary sensory areas that process somatosensory information. Sensations such as light touch, pain, heat and proprioception.

Front 17

What is proprioception and how does it relate to Gertsmann's syndrome?

Back 17

Proprioception is the ability to locate one's body parts. (touch your fingertip to your nose). Gertsmann's syndrome: lesions in parietal lobe that result in agraphia, acalculia, right-left disorientation and finger agnosia.

Front 18

What are the dominant functions of the cerebral occipital lobes?

Back 18

Located at the back of the brain and house the primary visual cortex.

Front 19

What are the dominant functions of the cerebral temporal lobes?

Back 19

Contains the primary auditory cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus: involved in emotional behavior and memory. Wernicke's aphasia - lesions here

Front 20

Differences between Broca's and Wernicke's aphasias?

Back 20

Broca's: lesions in left frontal motor cortex that controls the instigation of muscles to produce speech.
Wernicke's: lesions in left temporal lobe near the auditory cortex - ability to receive and interpret sensory inputs like speech from others.

Front 21

What are the primary structures of the subcortex?

Back 21

Corpus Callosum, Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland,
Limbic system, substantia Nigra, Basal Ganglia

Front 22

What is the function of the corpus callosum?

Back 22

Primary junction for white matter that serves as a bridge between the two hemispheres making it possible for the 2 sides to communicate.

Front 23

What is the function of the thalamus?

Back 23

Major sensory relay center - receives inputs from all sense except olfaction. Thalamus integrates, processes, and projects these sense onto the appropriate cortical areas. Structure critical to the perception of pain and may be linked to schizophrenia (misperceptions of sensory input).

Front 24

What is the function of the hypothalamus?

Back 24

Homeostasis, which is accomplished through regulating the endocrine system: temperature, hunger, thirst, sex, aggression, sleep-wake cycle.

Front 25

What is the function of the pituitary gland?

Back 25

Labeled the master endocrine gland because it releases hormone that activate other glands. Involved in normal and abnormal growth and influences thyroid, testes, pancrease, adrenal glands.

Front 26

What is the function of the Limbic system?

Back 26

Group of interconnected structures (Cortical & Subcortical) involed in emotional behavior, particularly aggression.
Structures include: hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, septum, parts of thalamus, frontol lobe and temporal lobes.

Front 27

Which areas of the limbic system are most involved with agression?

Back 27

Amygdala and septum; septal rage.

Front 28

Describe the Kluver-Bucy syndrome and its relationship to the limbic system.

Back 28

first described in monkeys that had undergone bilateral temporal lobectomies and removal of amygdala.
Symptoms: placidity, apathy, hyperphagia, hypersexuality, and agnosias.

Front 29

Which structure in the limbic system is responsible for storing new events as lasting memories?

Back 29

Hippocampus

Front 30

What is the main function of the cerebellum?

Back 30

responsible for maintaining smooth movement and coordinating motor activity. Also controls for automatic adjustments of posture that result in our ability to stay balanced.

Front 31

What are the three main areas of the brain stem?

Back 31

pons, medulla, reticular activating system

Front 32

What are the functions of the pons and the medulla?

Back 32

Pons: upper portion of the brain stem.
Medulla - bottom of brain stem
Fucntions: facial expressions, sleep (including initiating REM), respiration, movement, cardiovascular. Damage to either can result in death

Front 33

What is the RAS in the brain stem and its function?

Back 33

Reticular activating system, consists of medulla, pons, hypothalamus, and thalamus. Serves as filter for incoming sensory information. Activates the cortex into alertness.

Front 34

What are the three parts of a neuron?

Back 34

dendrites (receive info)
cell body (soma - integrates info)
axon - transmits info

Front 35

What is the "all or none prniciple" regarding neurons

Back 35

Threshold reached or it will not fire. Axons do not fire more strongly or less strongly given the strength of the stimulation - fires all the way or not at all.

Front 36

How are neurotransmitters released?

Back 36

After an axon has fired, neurotransmitters are released from axon terminal buttons in the synapse and bind to dendrite receptors. Reuptake may occur.

Front 37

What are the two types of neurotransmitters?

Back 37

Excitatory - acetylcholine, norepinephrine - increase likelihood of an action potential.
Inhibitory - GABA, endorphin -decrease the likelihood of an action potential

Front 38

What is the difference between an agonist and antagonist?

Back 38

Agonist - any substance that enhances the effect of the neurotransmitter. Antagonist refers to any substance that inhibts the neurotransmitter effect.

Front 39

As a classical neurotransmitter, acetylcholine (Ach) has what two significant functions?

Back 39

Most common neurotransmitter.
1. Voluntary movement
2. Memory and cognition
Particulary prevalent in hippocampus
most notable deficienciy in levels of acetylcholine is Alzheimer's Disease.

Front 40

What are the two types of catecholamines and their effects?

Back 40

1. Dopamine. Excesses implicated in schizophrenia. Decrease in Dopamine thought to impact Parkisons.
2. Norepinephrine: significantly involved in mood and hypothes. to play a role in pain perception and sleep.
"Cateholamine hypoth of affective disorders" - depression = deficiency while mania = excess.

Front 41

What is the classical neurotransmitter Serotonin most implicated in affecting?

Back 41

Serotonin (5-HT)signicantly involved in mood disorders. Believed to play a role in aggression, sexual activity, sleep onset, pain perception, and eating disorders. connected with suicidality and associated impulsivity.

Front 42

What is the hypothesized role of serotonin in schizophrenia?

Back 42

Early theories suggested serotonin in schizophrenia. Ne research has been rekindled because the novel antipsychotics (Clozapine) work but do not block domaine, instead the are serotonin receptor antagonists.

Front 43

What is the role of GABA, a classical neurotransmitter in the CNS?

Back 43

GABA has a major inhibitory effect - a calming effect. Beleived that in anxiety and epileptic sezures that there is a deficiency in levels of GABA. Benzodiazepines are GABA agonists, increase levels of GABA and decrease overarousal.

Front 44

What are the endogenous neurotransmitters?

Back 44

over 25 peptide neurotransmitters, Two are the enkephalins and endorphins, also referred to as endogenous opioids, the body's natural painkillers. These peptide neurotransmitters are thought to regulate stress and pain.

Front 45

Why is the pituitary referred to as the master endocrine gland?

Back 45

Because it releases hormones that activate other endocrine glands. Disruption results in a variety of medical conditions, which many have comorbid psychological symptoms.

Front 46

What is hypopituitarism?

Back 46

Results from under secretion of pituitary hormones.
Children = dwarfism, pubertal delay
Adults = gonadal failure (impotence) or contributions to diabetes, hypothyroidism

Front 47

What is hyperpituitarism?

Back 47

Involves startling skeletal overgrowth:
Prepuberty = gigantism
Postpuberty = acromegaly

Front 48

What is hyperthyroidism?

Back 48

Excessive secretion of Thyroxin (hormone that controls metabolism):
Results in weight loss despite increased appetite, heat sensitivity, sweating, diaarrhea, palpitations, agitated depression, insomnia, impaired memory.
Most common form is Grave's Disease.

Front 49

What is hypothyroidism?

Back 49

Undersecretion of thyroxin. Results in unexplained weight gain, sluggishness, fatigue, impaired memory, and sensitivity to cold. If it progresses, myxedematous symptoms appear (dry skin, sparse hair, decrease in cardiac output). Most severe -results in madness - delusions, mania, hallucinations.

Front 50

What is hyperparathyroidism?

Back 50

Parathryroid plays a role in calcium retention. hyperparathyroidism produces hypercalcemia with resultant delirium, depression, personality changes, psychosis, stupor, coma.

Front 51

What is hypoparathyroidism?

Back 51

Parathryroid plays a role in calcium retention.
hypoparathyroidism produces neuromusclualr symptoms, parasthesia (tingling) or tetany (cramps, convulsions). Psychiatric: delirium or personality change

Front 52

Which organ is involved in Diabetes?

Back 52

Pancrease undersecretes or becomes nonsecreting.
Type I -juvenile onset or Insulin Dependent.
Type II - adult onset or non-insuline dependent.

Front 53

What is diabestes insipidus?

Back 53

Relatively rare form -typically induced by medication (e.g., from lithium toxicity).

Front 54

What is Addison's Disease?

Back 54

Undersecretion of corticosteroids (adrenal insufficiency). Symptoms of apathy, weakness, irritability, depression, gastrointestinal disturbance.

Front 55

What is Cushing's Disease?

Back 55

Oversecretion of corticosteroids (Adrenal gland). Physically experiences "adiposity" or swelling and fattening of the face, neck, and trunk. Results in agitated depression, irritability, and emotional lability, difficulty with memory and concentration, even suicide.

Front 56

What is hypoglycemia?

Back 56

Abnormally low blood sugar. Symtpoms include nervousness, irritability, trembling, cold sweats, fatigue, rapid heart rate, hunger, headache, confusion.

Front 57

What is hyperglycemia?

Back 57

Abnormally highblood sugar. Evidence in persons with diabetes. Sumptoms include increased thirst and urination, dehydration, fatigue, weakness, abdominal pain, nausea, loss of appetite.

Front 58

What is an aphasia?

Back 58

A language disorder resulting from damage to the left hemisphere.

Front 59

What is Broca's aphasia?

Back 59

"broken speech" - Lesions are in the left frontal lobe, near the motor cortex, which controls the muscles that produce speech. Fair comprehension but speak in short phrases. Effortful speech with poor articulation (dysarthria). Expressive or motor aphasia.

Front 60

What is Wernicke's aphasia?

Back 60

Results from lesions in the left temporal lobe. Problems with language comprehsnion. Speak easily and fluently but speech is empty, marked by use of filler words. Frequent misuse of rwords and misproduced speech sounds (paraphasisas). They don't make much sense. Wernicke's is a receptive or sensory aphasia.

Front 61

Broca's is to Wernicke's as

Back 61

frontal lobe is to temporal lobe. or
Expressive is to receptive.

Front 62

What is a conduction aphasia?

Back 62

Due to lesions in the connections between expressive and receptive speech areas. most resemble individuals with Wernickes (intact fluency, paraphasias) but have well-preserved languagecomprehension that is not found in Wernicke's.

Front 63

What is global aphasia?

Back 63

REsults from so much damage to the cortex that most language functions are impaired, including fluency, comprehension, repitition, naming, reading, and writing.

Front 64

What are some examples of one-sided neglect?

Back 64

Forgetting to dress one side of the body, eating food from only one side of the plate. full or partial loss of motor functioning on one side.

Front 65

What is apraxia?

Back 65

Refers to inability to carry out purposeful motor movements (waving). persona can move limbs normally but wrong muscles are innervated. (left brain lesions).

Front 66

What is agraphia?

Back 66

Impairment in the ability to write (specifically acquired after the person has learned to write). Deficits in spelling, word selction, grammar, spatial arrangement. Left hemisphere.

Front 67

What is alexia?

Back 67

inability to read after reading has been learned.
Left hemipshere - most common cause is a stroke to the dominant/left hemisphere.

Front 68

What is the difference between retograde and anterograde prosopagnosia?

Back 68

Retrograde - inability to recognize faces of previous known individuals.
Anterograde - inability to learn new faces.
Thought to be due to an injury in the visual association cortex.

Front 69

What is hydrocephalus?

Back 69

pathological accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the brain's ventricles.

Front 70

According to DSM-IV, what are the characteristics of dementia?

Back 70

"memory plus"
dementia is characterized by short or long-term memory impairment PLUS at least one of the following:
1. aphasia (language)
2. apraxia (motor activities)
3. agnosia (object recognition)
4. executive functioning (planning, organizing, abstracting)

Front 71

What is the prevalence of Alzheimer's dementia?

Back 71

* most common form of dementia, accounting for over 1/2 of all cases.
* Also, more prevalent in women.
* 1st degree relative of patients iwth AD have a 6 times greater risk.
* most rapid and relentless course occurs with early onset or before 65.
*diagnoses confirmed in autopsy.

Front 72

What are the phases of Alzheimer's?

Back 72

Early phase - recent memory impairments, forgetting, difficulty problem-solving. some irritability, frustration.
Middle - memory as well as cognitive deficits such as aphasia. also exhibits confusion, wandering, sociall undesirable behaviors.
later stage characterized by gait and motor problems; may become mute and bedridden.

Front 73

What is the neurotransmitter most implicated in Alzheimer's disease?

Back 73

acetylcholine (ACh).

Front 74

What are the markers or brain changes associatd with Alzheimer's disease?

Back 74

Senile plaques (protein globes)

Neurofibrillary tangles (neuronal filaments)

Front 75

What is the etiology and prevalence of vascular dementia?

Back 75

10-15% of all dementia cases.
Twice as prevalent in men as women. Results from numerous small Cerebrovacular accidents or strokes.
Age of onset much younger than Alzheimer's.

Front 76

Describe Parkinson's Disease

Back 76

Affects men slightly more than women. Considered a subcortical movement disorder.
Marked by tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia (slowed initiation of movement), shuffling gait, and sometimes neuropsychiatric symtoms. 30-50% have dementia. 50-90% have depression.

Front 77

Which brain structures are associated with Parkinson's disease?

Back 77

The degeneration of neurons in the substantia nigra, a section of the basal ganglia. decrease in dopamine. Affects speed of processing and executive functions (planning, organizing, sequencing).

Front 78

Describe Huntington's Disease.

Back 78

Results from autosomal-dominant gene involving the basal ganglia.
First sign is personality change.
Does not become apparent until age 35-45.
offspring have a 50% chance of being affected

Front 79

What neurotransmitters are associated with Huntington's Disease?

Back 79

Acetylcholine and GABA
* All patients with Huntington's have progressively deteriorating dementia as well.

Front 80

What are the choriform and athetosis movements in Huntington's Disease?

Back 80

Frequent, discrete, brisk jerking movements of the pelvis, trunk and limbs.
Athetosis - slow writhing movements.
Both occur within months to years after the onset of the disease.

Front 81

What is Pick's Disease?

Back 81

Frontotemporal dementia. affects women twice as much as men.
*onset peaks between 50's and 60's.
*characterized by disihibition, decreases initiative, tactless and inappropriate behavior, explosive temper, poor impulse control, impaired insight as well as memory and language problems.

Front 82

What is the prevalence of Aids Dementia Complex?

Back 82

ADC affects approximately 10-15% of people with AIDS.
*includes cognitive, motor, and behavioral changes.

Front 83

What are the 2 most common types of closed-head injuries?

Back 83

1. Concussion: most common in which the skull is not pierced or cracked - results fom a blow to the head, hard enough to cause temporary neural dysfunction - but not cerebral bruising or contusion.
2. Contusion - far more serious. Pt. pay lose consciousness, may experience aphasia, hemparesis, etc. upon returning to alert state.

Front 84

How do anterograde and retrograde amnesia differ?

Back 84

Anterograde - inability to remember new information about things that occur after the head trauma.
Retrograde - loss of membory for info acquired before the injury. (usually things that occured right before the incident).

Front 85

What is a postconcussive syndrome and its associated symptoms?

Back 85

Constellation of somatic and psychological symptoms including headache, dizziness, fatigue, loss of concentration and memory, anxiety, insomnia, hypersensitivity to light and noise. Most common: headaches, dizziness, fatigue, irritability

Front 86

What is an open-head injury

Back 86

penetration of the skull - such as a gunshot wound.

Front 87

What is the average period for recovery from head trauma?

Back 87

Most cognitive recovery occurs within the first six to nine months. May take 2-3 years. Order of recovery: general intelligence then memory functions.

Front 88

What is pseudodementia?

Back 88

Cognitive impairment due to depression that mimics dementia.

Front 89

What is delirium?

Back 89

Acute confusional state. Acute onset, fluctuating course, clouded sensorium and most likely to be reversible.

Front 90

What are common causes of delirium?

Back 90

Infections, substance withdrawal, intoxication, postoperative states, metabolic and endocrine disorders.

Front 91

What is the drug of choice for delirium?

Back 91

Haldol

Front 92

What is Korsakoff's syndrome?

Back 92

Amnestic syndrome thought to be caused by chronic thiamin (B1) deficiency associated with alcoholism.

Front 93

What is one of the most significant problems associated with Korsakoff's?

Back 93

Anterograde amnesia. My also suffer retrograde amnesia - especially for their adult lives. These patient's frequently confabulate - make up plausible stories about past events that did not occur. They lack insightand limited spontaneous conversation although they are alert, attentive, motivated and have generally normal IQs.

Front 94

What is the gate control theory (Melzak and Wall, 1965)?

Back 94

Sensations of pain are not directly related to activation of pain receptors, but rather they are mediated by a neural gate in the spinal cord that allows these signals to continue to the brain. Pressure stimulation tends to close the gate - which is why rubbing a hurt relieves the pain. Attitudes and moods may open the gate and increase pain.

Front 95

What type of schedule should narcotic and non-narcotic medicines be administered for chronic pain?

Back 95

Time-contingent, fixed interval schedule. Never prn for pain.

Front 96

Beta Waves?

Back 96

Person is alert and attentive

Front 97

Alpha Waves?

Back 97

Person is relaxed with a brain wave pattern of 8-12 Hz per second.

Front 98

Theta Waves?

Back 98

Stage 1 sleep - a transitionalb stage between wakefulnees and sleep when brain waves of 4-8 Hz occur.

Front 99

Stage 2 sleep?

Back 99

characterized by spindles, or rhythmical responses of 12-16 Hz.

Front 100

Delta Waves?

Back 100

Stages 3-4. slow waves of 1-2 Hz.

Front 101

REM sleep?

Back 101

Follows stage 4. Newborns spend 50% of their time in REM. By age five it is about 20-25%. By old age only 18%.