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114 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What do chromosomes do in the nucleus?
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Chromosomes store and transmit genetic information.
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How many chromosomes do humans have?
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23 pairs
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Which chromosome determines sex?
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the 23rd pair
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A term used to describe sex cells
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Gametes
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Gametes combine during which process to create an individual?
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Meiosis
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What is the male and female combination?
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XX FEMALE, XY MALE
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Why are there more death and disease in males?
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Because the Y chromosome is smaller in a male, and contains less genetic information.
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What are Monozygotic twins?
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They have identical genes
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What are dizygotic twins?
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Genes are no more alike than those of siblings.
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Dominant Recessive Inheritance
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only 1 gene affects the child’s characteristics ( this is the dominant gene )
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Codominance
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Where both genes influence a person’s characteristics
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X-Linked Inheritance
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When a harmful gene is carried on the X chromosome
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Genetic Imprinting
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some genes are chemically marked in ways that either the mother or father will be activated ( why some children are more likely to develop diabetes if their father rather than mother suffers from it)
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Mutation
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-Results in a sudden and permanent change in DNA structure
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Polygenic Inheritance
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many genes can interact to produce a particular characteristic
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Genotype
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is the person’s genetic heritage
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Phenotype
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– is the way in individual’s genotype is expressed
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Chromosomal Abnormalities
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Chromosomal abnormalities are often a resuld of a mistake during the meiosis phase when the ovum and the sperm are formed
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Describe some reproductive choices
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-Genetic counseling
-Prenatal Diagnosis and Fetal Medicine - Amniocentisis, Ultrasound sonography -Adoption |
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Human Genome Project
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aimed at mapping human genes in order to understand human evolution and the development of genetic disorders
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what are heretability estimates
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measure the extend to which individual differences are due to genetic differences. Obtained from kinshipstudies
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what is concordance rate
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refers to the percentage of instances where both twins show a trait when it is present in one twin
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what is canalization?
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Tendency of heredity to restrict the development of some characteristics to a few outcomes
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what is reaction range
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each person responds to the environment in a unique way due to genetic makeup. It highlights to important points 1. it shows that because each of us has a unique genetic makeup, we respond differently to the same environment.Second, sometimes diff. genetic-environmental combos can make two people exactly the same!
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One Course of Development or Many?
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Stages are assumed to be universal across cultures and individuals meaning that stage theorists assume people everywhere follow the same sequence of development.
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Nature vs. Nurture
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• By nature, we mean the inborn genetic information that is passed to us by biological parents that affects our characteristics and skills
By nurture we refer to the forces of the physical and social world that influence our biological makeup and psychological experiences before and after birth. |
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What are Piaget's 4 stages of development?
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Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational
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Describe Sensorimotor Stage
(Piaget's Cognitive-Developmental Theory) |
Birth - 2 years, infants think by acting with their eyes, ears and hands
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Discuss preoperational stage (Piaget's Cognitive-Developmental Theory)
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2-7 years old, operations are internalized sets of actions that allow children to do mentally what before they…
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Discuss Concrete Operational stage
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7-11 years, thinking is more logical and school age children have mastered concept of conversation and can organize objects into hierarchies of classes and subclasses.
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Discuss Formal Operational Stage (Piaget's Cognitive-Developmental Theory)
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11 + , the capacity for abstract thought allows teens to reason with symbols that don't refer to objects in real world with advanced mathematicians.
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What is a theory? Why are they useful in science?
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- A theory is an orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behaviors.
- They are useful in science because they provide organizing frameworks for observations of people. Also, theories that are verified by research provide a sound basis for practical action. |
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Continuous or Discontinuous Development?
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Continuous is a process of gradually augmenting the same types of skilss that were there to begin with.
Discontinuous is a process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times. Much like a series of developmental steps, until she reaches the highest level of functioning. |
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Describe plasticity
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Theorists who emphasize plasticity believe that change is possible and even likely if new experiences support it.
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Describe Resiliency
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the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development
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List the assumptions of the lifespan prespective
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Development is lifelong, multidimensional and multidirectional, highly plastice and affected by multiple interacting forces.
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Development is lifelong
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Development happens throughout the life, no single age period is supreme in its impact on the life course.
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Development is multidimensional and multidirectional
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the challenges and adjustments of development are multidimensional - affected by an intricate blend of biological, psychological and social forces. It is also multidirectional, in at least two ways. First, development is not limited to improved performance rather at every period, it is a joint expression of growth and decline. Besides being multidirectional over time it is also multidirectional within each domain of development.
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Development is Highly Plastic (The Lifespan Perspective )
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Development is plastic at all ages, but can become less plastic as both capacity and opportunity of change are reduced.
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Development is affected by multiple interacting forces
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Development is influenced by multiple forces: biological, historical, social, and cultural. They work together, combining in unique ways to fashion the life course.
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age-graded influence on development
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events that are strongly related to age and predictable when they occur and how long they last. EX -walking after first birthday.
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History-graded influence on development
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explains why people born around the same time - called a cohort - tend to be alike in ways that set them apart from people born at other times. Ex - baby boomers.
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Nonnormative influence on development
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are events that are irregular: they happen to just one person or a few people and do not follow a predictable timetable. Ex - a battle with cancer
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Stage Theory
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theory that development is like climbing a staircase, with each step corresponding to a more mature, reorganized way of thinking.
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psychoanalytic perspective
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people move through a series of stages that in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. How these conflicts are resolved determines the person's ability to learn, to get along with others, and to cope with anxiety.
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What did Freud emphasize in terms of child development?
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-Freud emphasized the influence of the early parent-child relationship on development. He mostly emphasized the role of early experience at home.
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psychoanalytic perspective
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people move through a series of stages that in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. How these conflicts are resolved determines the person's ability to learn, to get along with others, and to cope with anxiety.
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What theory did Freud construct?
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Freud constructed the psychosexual theory which emphasizes that how parents manage their child's sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality development.
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What parts are in Freud's theory
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Three parts of the personality-id,ego, and superego become integrated with five stages, oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital.
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Why was Freud's psychosexual theory scrutinized?
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First, it overemphasized the influence of sexual feelings in development and second because it was based on the problems of the sexually repressed, well to do adults in the 19th century Viennes society, it didnt apply in other cultures. Finally, he had not studied children directly.
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What are the major debates within the field of psychology?
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Nature vs. Nurture
Stability vs. Change One course of development or many? Continuos or discontinous development? |
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(The Psychoanalytic Perspective ) Discuss the three stuctures of the mind.
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• Id: follows pleasure principle
• Ego: governed by the reality principle and secondary process thinking. • Superego: follows the moral principle |
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(The Psychoanalytic Perspective ) Discuss Freud's Psychosexual stages.
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1. Oral Stage - issue centered around oral fixation
2. Anal Stage - issue centered around toilet training 3. Phallic Stage - the oedipus complex and the electra complex develop ( centered around penis and clitoris ) 4. Latency - period of calm where sexual impulses remain dormant. 5. Genital Stage - begins with puberty. Sexual feelings towards opposite sex parents now transferred onto appropriate members of opposite gender. |
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Discuss Erikson's psychosocial theory.
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Erikson emphasized that in additon to mediating betwwen id impulses and superego demands, the ego makes a positive contribution to development, acquiring attitudes and skills at each stage that make the individual an active, contributing member of society.
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What are Erikson's psychosocial stages with corresponding psychosexual stages indicated.
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1. Trust vs. Mistrust ( Oral ) - 1st year of life
2. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt ( Anal ) - 1-3 years 3. Initiative vs. guilt ( Phallic ) - during preschool 4. Industry vs. inferiority ( Latency ) - Elementary 5. Identity vs. Indentity confusion ( Genital )- later adolescent years. 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation - early adult years 7. Generativity vs. stagnation - middle adulthood 8. Integrity vs. Despair - late adulthood |
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According to Erikson, what determines a healthy outcome in infancy?
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From warm, responsive care, infants gain a sense of trust or confidence that the world is good.
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How do behaviorists explain behavior?
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• Modeling - individuals learn by observing
• Classical Conditioning - Learning occurs by temporal association • Operant Conditioning - Humans and animals learn to behave in certain ways as a result of receiving rewards. |
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Bandura's Social Learning Theory
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• Observational learning - learning occurs through observing others
• Models are likely to be modeled if they are perceived as having high status, competence and power |
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what are the basic premises of the ethological approach?
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Ethology is concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary principle.
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Observations of animals by ethologists of what behavior led to the concept of critical period?
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observations of imprinting (the early following behavior of animals which occurs in a early restricted period of development) led to a major concept in human development: the cricial period.
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what is the critical period?
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It refers to a limited time span during which the individual is biologically prepared to acquire certain adaptive behaviors but needs the support of an appropriately stimulating environment.
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Why are males more likely to be affected negatively than females with X-linked traits?
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Males are more likely to be affected because their sex chromosomes don't match. The y chromosome is only 1/3 as long as x chrom. therefore it lacks many corresponding genes to override those on the X.
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How are fraternal twins created?
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Throught the release and fertilization of two ova.
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How are identical twins created?
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Created when a duplicating zygote separated into two clusters of cells, and two individuals with the same genetic makeup developed.
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Why are African Americans more prone to the sickle cell gene?
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Common among african americans because carriers of it are more resistant to malaria than individuals with two alleles for normal blood cells.. In Africa, these carriers survived and reproduced more frequently than others, leading the gene to be maintained in the black population.
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What is genetic counseling?
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Genetic Counseling is a communication process designed to help couples understand genetic principles, genetic testing, and prevention of genetic disorders, assess their chances of giving birth to a baby with a hereditary disorder and choose the best course of action in view of risks and family goals.
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Under what condition is genetic counseling recommended?
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individuals likely to seek genetic counseling are those who have had difficulties bearing children, or who know that genetic problems exist in their families, also women who delay having children past 35.
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What is prenatal diagnosis and fetal medicine?
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Prenatal diagnosis are medical procedures that permit detection of problems before birth.
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what are direct influences?
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Two person family relationships, mother, brother etc..
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What are indirect influences?
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influences that are like third parties...such as a parents marriage,
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Describe Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory
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views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of surrounding environment. He characterized his perspective with the bioecological model.
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Ecological Systems Theory - the microsystem
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the innermost level of the env., it consists of activities and interaction patterns in the persons immediate surroundings. Ex - Child affected and affects parent also includes third parties
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Ecological Systems Theory - the mesosystem
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The 2nd level of Bronfenbrenner's model, encompasses connections between microsystems.Ex. how well a person interacts with their spouse is affected by relationships in the work place
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Ecological Systems Theory - The exosystem
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consists of social settings that do not contain the developing person but nevertheless affect experiences in immediate settings.
Ex. Board of Dir. at individuals workplace, community health and welfare services |
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Ecological Systems Theory - The Macrosystem
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Outermost level of Bronfenbrenner's model, consists of cultural values, laws, customs and resources.
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(Studying Development)
Longitudinal |
The investigator studies the same group of participants repeatedly at diff. ages.
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(Studying Development)
Cross-sectional |
The investigator studies groups of participants differing in age at the same point in time.
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( Studying Development )
Sequential |
The investigator conducts several similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies ( called sequences ) at varying times.
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( Research Design ) Correlational
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The investigator obtains information on participants without altering their experiences.
Strength: permits study of relationships between variables. Limitations: Does not permit inferences about cause-and-effect relationships. |
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( Research Design )
Experimental |
Through random assignment of participants to treatment conditions, the investigator manipulates an independant variable and examines its effect on a dependant variable. Can be Conducted in the lab or natural environment.
Strength: permits inferences about cause and effect relationships. |
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( Research Design ) Limitation of Experimental design
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When conducted in the laboratory, findings may not generate to the real world. In field exp, control over the treatment is usually weaker than in the lab. In natural, or quasi experiments, lack of random assignment substantially reduces precision of research.
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What is the independant variable
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variable that investigator expects to cause changes in another variable.
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What is the dependant variable
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variable that investigator expects to be influenced by the independant variable.
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What is a major ethical concern with genetic testing?
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If they come up with information like the person will likely have alzeimers should they tell them and possibly ruin that persons quality of life.
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What is an example of a highly canalized behavior?
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infant perceptual and motor development because all human babies will eventually roll over and walk etc..
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Passive genotype -environment correlations
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Parents predisposed to be intelligent, they provide kids with resources, this is called passive because you have no say in this.
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Evocative genotype-environment correlations
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athletic inclined youth encouraged to participate in sports at a young age, you evoke a certain response from the environment.
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Active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations
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you begin to seek out the environment that meet our biological or preferred needs.
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Collectivist Societies
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people define themselves as part of a group and stress group goals over individual goals.
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Individualistic Culturse
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People think of themselves as separate entities and are largely concerned with their own personal needs.
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What is the advantage of having extended family for African Americans?
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Enables members to survive, grandparents guide younger generations,adults face help etc..
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Which period of infancy is the time when serious defects are likely to occur? Why?
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The embryonic period is the time when serious defects are most likely to occur because the foundations for all body parts are being formed.
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what is the placenta?
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the organ that permits exchange of nutrients and waste products between the bloodstreams of mother and the embryo, while also preventingthe mother's and embryo blood from mixing directly.
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what is the umbilical cord?
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the long cord connecting the prenatal organism to the placenta that delivers nutrients and removes waste products.
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what is vernix
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a white, cheeselike substance that protects its skin from chapping during the long months spendt bathing in the amniotic fluid.
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what is lanugo
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white, downy hair which appears over the entire body, helping the vernix stick to the skin.
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what is the age of viability
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the point at which the fetus can survive, occurs sometimes between 22 and 26 weeks.
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what is the sensitive period
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it is a limited time span in which a part of the body or a behavior is biologically prepared to develop rapidly. Very sensitive to environment, if the env. is harmful, then damage ocurs.
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what is a teratogen
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it refers to any environmental agent that causes damage during the prenatal period. The harm done by them depends on dose, heredity, other negative influences, and age.
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Describe harm done by DES diethylstilbestrol ( teratogen )
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Mothers took it to prevent miscarriage and when daughters of mothers reached adolescence and adulthood, they showed high rates of cancer of the vagina, malformations of the uterus, and infertility.When tried to have preg, it resulted in prematurity, low birth weight. Young men showed an increase risk of genital abnormalities and cancer of the testes.
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Describe harm done by thalidomide ( teratogen )
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a sedative widly available in canada, south america, Europe. When taken by mothers four to six wks after conception, it produced gross deformaties in embryos arms, legs, damage to ears, heart, kidneys, and genitals. As kids grew older, they scored below avg in intelligence so perhaps it damaged the central nervous system.
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Describe harm done by cocaine, heroin or methadone
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Babies are at risk for prematurity, low birth weight, physical defects, breathing difficulties, and death around the time of birth. They are also born drug addicted. Less attentive to env. and slow motor skilss.
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Effects of smoking
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low birth weight. Behavioral abnormalities such as being less attentive to sounds, display more muscle tension, are more excitable when touched and visually stimulated.
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effects of alchohol
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fetal alcohol spectrum disorder, encompasses a range of physical, mental and behavioral outcomes caused by prenatal alcohol exposure. FAS - slow growht, pattern of 3 facial abnormailites -thin upper lip, smoothed philtrum, indentation running from bottom of nose to center of upper lip. and brain injury evident in impairment in atleast 3 areas of functioning, memory, language, communication, attention span.
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what is the most well-known effect of smoking during the prenatal period?
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low birth weight
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what are the effects of mercury
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physical deformaties, mental retardation, abnormal speech, difficulty in chewing and swallowing and uncoordinated movements. It disrupts production and migration of neurons, causing wide spread brain damage.
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What is toxoplasmosis? What precautions should pregnant women take?
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A bacteria which is caused by a parasite found in many animals. They should avoid it by making sure what they eat is well cooked, having pet cats checked for disease, and turning over the care of litter boxes to other family members.
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What is Rh Factor?
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When inherited blood types of fetus and mother differ, if a even a little of the Rh positive blood crosses the placenta into the rh negative mothers bloodstream, she begins to form antibodies to the foreign rh protein. If they enter fetus system they destroy red blood cells thus reducing oxygen supplied to organs and tissues. Causes mental retardation, miscarriage, heart damage.
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Why is maternal stress dangerous to the developing baby?
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maternal stress causes blood to go to different parts of our body like brain heart muscles in arms legs but blood flow to other organs like uterus is reduced thus the fetus is deprived of a full supply of oxygen and nutrients.
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What function do stress hormones produced by infants during childbirth serve?
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It helps the baby withstand oxygen deprivation by sending a rich supply of blood to the brain and heart.It also prepares the baby to breathe by causing the lungs to absorb any remaining fluid and by expanding the bronchial tubes. They also arouse the infant into alertness.
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What 2 scales are used to assess the newborn baby’s appearance? What is a healthy score on each of the scales? Where does the danger zone lie?
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• Apgar scale - to assess the physical conditioning and functioning of the newborn
Ø Score of 3 or lower requires immediate medical attention Ø 7+ indicates good health • To evaluated a newborn more thoroughly to Brazelton Neonatal Behavior Assessment Scale |
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Low birth weight
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infant weighs less than 5 1/2 pounds at birth
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newborn baby reflexes
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• Sucking reflex - suck on object placed in their mouth
• rooting reflex - occurs when the infants cheek is stroked, its an effort to find something to suck on, both disappear within 4 months • Moro reflex - occurs in response to a sudden noise or movement, they arch back through their head back and bring feet forward • Grasping reflex- when something touches the infants palms |
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What can a lack of reflexes or prolonged reflexes in a baby indicate??
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It can show brain damage
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