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251 Cards in this Set
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- Back
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anthropology
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the study of humankind in all times and places
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holistic perspective
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a principle of anthropology: you must view the various parts of human culture and biology broadly to be able to understand their interconnections and interdependence.
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culture-bound
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theories about the world and reality that are skewed because of our own values from our own culture.
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four fields of anthropology
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physical, archaeology, linguistic, or cultural
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applied anthropology
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the use of anthropological knowledge and methods to solve practical problems, often for a specific person.
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medical anthropology
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a specialization that brings the findings of anthropology to the study of human health and disease.
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Physical anthropology
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Biological anthropology; the study of humans as biological organisms.
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Molecular anthropology
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branch of physical anthropology that uses genetic and biochemical techniques to test hypotheses about human evolution, adaptation, and variation.
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paleoanthropology
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study of origins and predecessors of the present human species.
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biocultural
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the interaction of biology and culture
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Franz Boas
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early 20th century; compared the heights of European immigrants who spent their childhood in "the old country" to the increased heights obtained by the children who grew up in the US
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developmental adaptions
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long term change; enlargement of right ventricle of heart among the Quecha Indians of highland Peru.
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Physiological adaptations
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short-term changes in response to a particular environmental stimulus.
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Forensic anthropology
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part of physical anthropology; specializes in identification of human skeletal remains for legal purposes.
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Primatology
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study of living and fossil primates.
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Cultural anthropology
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social or sociocultural; the study of patterns in human behavior, thought, and feelings. Focuses on humans as culture-producing and culture-reproducing creatures.
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Culture
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A society's shared ideas, values, and perceptions, which are use to make sense of experience and which generate behavior and are reflected in that behavior.
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ethnography
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a detailed description of a particular culture primarily based on fieldwork.
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fieldwork
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on-location research
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participant observation
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In ethnography, the technique of learning a person's culture through social participation and personal observation within the community being studied, as well as interviews and discussion with individual members of the group over a long time.
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2 parts of cultural anthropology
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enthnography and ethnology
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Ethnology
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the study of different cultures from a comparitive or historical point of view, using ethnographic accounts and developing theories that help explain why certain important differences or similarities occur among groups.
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globalization
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a worldwide process that rapidly transforms cultures
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archaeology
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the study of human cultures through the recovery and analysis of material remains and environmental data.
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cultural resource management
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a branch of archaeology tied to government policies for the protection of cultural resources and involving surveying and/ or excavating remains threatened by construction or development.
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linguistic anthropology
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the study of human languages, looking at their structure, history, and/ or relation to social and cultural contexts.
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empirical
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based on observations of the world rather than on intuition or faith
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hypothesis
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tentative explanation of the relation between certain phenomena
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theory
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an explanation of natural phenomena, supported by a reliable body of data
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Matilda Cox Stevenson
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founded Women's Anthropological Society; one of the first women to receive a full time official position in science.
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3 kinds of people anthropologists serve
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(1)those whom they study, (2)those who fund the research, and (3) those in the profession who expect us to publish our findings so they may be used to further our collective knowledge
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enculturation
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the process by which a society's culture is transmitted from one generation to the next and individuals become members of their society.
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society
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an organized group of interdependent people who generally share a common territory, language, and culture and who act together for collective survival and well-being.
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gender
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the cultural elaborations and meanings assigned to the biological differences between the sexes.
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subcultures
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a distinctive set of standards and behavior patterns by which a group within a larger society operates, while still sharing common standards with the larger society.
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ethnic group
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people who collectively and publicly identify themselves as a distinct group based on various cultural features such as shared ancestry and commin origin, language, customs, and traditional beliefs.
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ethnicity
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the expression of the set of cultural ideas held by an ethnic group.
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pluralistic society
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a society in which two or more ethnic groups or nationalities are politically organized into one territorial state but maintain their cultural differences.
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symbol
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a sign, sound, emblem, or other thing that is arbitrarily linked to something else and represents it in a meaningful way
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Society's cultural features fall into these three categories:
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social structure, infrastructure, and superstructure.
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Infrastructure
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Economic base: The mode of subsistence
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Social Structure
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Social organization: the patterned social arrangements of individuals within a society
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Superstructure
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Worldview: The preception of the self, society, and the world around us.
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Malinowski's 3 fundamental levels of needs
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(1) a culture must provide for biological needs, such as the need for food and procreation, (2) a culture must provide for instrumental needs, such as the need for law and education, (3) a culture must provide for integrative needs, such as religion and art.
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ethnocentrism
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the belief that the ways of one's own culture are the only proper ones.
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cultural relativism
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the idea that one must suspend judgement of other people's practices in order to understand them in their own cultural terms.
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internal colonies
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reservations
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urgent anthropology
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savage ethnography; research that documents endangered cultures
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Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA)
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oversees federally recognized tribes on Indian reservations
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NGOs
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nongovernmental organizations
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advocacy anthropology
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research that is community based and politically involved
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multi-sited ethnography
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the investigation and documentation of peoples and cultures embedded in the larger structures of a globalizing world, utilizing a range of methods in various locations of time and space.
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cyberethnography
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studies of online "imagined communities"
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ethnographic fieldwork
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Extended on-location research to gather detailed and in-depth information on a societ's customary ideas, values, and practices through participation in its collective social life.
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key consultant
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a member of the society being studied, who provides information that helps researchers understand the meaning of what they observe; informants
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quantitative data
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statistical or measurable information
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qualitative data
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nonstatistical information such as stories
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informal interview
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an unstructured, open-ended conversation in every day life
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formal interview
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a structured question/ answer session carefully notated as it occurs and based on prepared questions.
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eliciting device
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an activity or object used to draw out individuals and encourage them to recall and share information.
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3 kinds of data to describe a culture
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(1) the people's own understanding of their culture and the general rules they share (how their society ought to be), (2) the extent to which people believe they are observing the rules, (3) the behavior that can be directly observed
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exogamy
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marriage outside of one's own group
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digital ethnography
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the use of digital technologies (audio and visual) for the collection, analysis, and representation of ethnographic data.
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ethnohistory
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a study of cultures of the recent past through oral histories, accounts of explorers, missionaries, and traders, and through analysis of records such as land titles, birth and death records, and other archival materials
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doctrine
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dogma; an assertion of opinion or belief formally handed down by an authority as true and indisputable.
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Human Relations Area Files (HRAF)
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a vast collection of cross-indexed ethnographic and archaeological data catalogued by cultural characteristics and geographic locations. Archived in about 300 libraries (on microfiche and/ or online)
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idealist perspective
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a theoretical approach stressing the primacy of superstructure in cultural research and analysis
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materialist perspective
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a theoretical approach stressing the primacy of infrastructure (material conditions) in cultural research and analysis
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Marxist theory
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explains major change in society as the result of growing conflicts between opposing social classes, namely those who possess property and those who do not
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informed consent
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formal, recorded agreement to participate in research
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paleoanthropologist
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an anthropologist specializing in the study of human evolutionary history
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primatologist
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a specialist in the behavior and biology of living primates and their evolutionary history
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evolution
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changes in the genetic makeup of a population over generations
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genes
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the basic physical units of heredity that specify the biological traits anc characteristics of each organism
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adaptation
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a serier of beneficial adjustments of organisms to their environment
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Natural Selection
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the principle of mechanism by which individuals having biological characteristics best suited to a particular environment survive and reproduce with greater frequency than individuals without those characteristics.
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species
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a population or group of populations having common attributes and the ability to interbreed and produce live, fertile offspring. Different species are reproductively isolated from one another
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primate
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the subgroup of mammals that includes lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans.
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Kinji Imanishi
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wrote "The world of living things"
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hominoids
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the broad-shouldered tailless group of primates that includes all living and extinct apes and humans
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bipedalism
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a special form of locomotion in which an organism walks upright on two feet- characteristic of humans and their ancestors
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Australopithecus
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The genus including several species of early bipeds from southern, eastern, and central Africa (Chad) living between about 1.1 and 4.3 million years ago, one of whom was directly ancestral to humans.
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Lower Paleolithic
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The first part of the Old Stone Age spanning from about 200,000 or 250,000 to 2.6 million years ago
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Oldowan
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The first stone tool industry, beginning between 2.5 and 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Lower Paleolithic.
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Homo habilis
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"Human handyman." The first fossil members of the genus appearing 2.5 to 2.6 million years ago, with larger brains and smaller faces than australopithecines.
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Homo erectus
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"Upright human." A species within the genus Homo first appearing just after 2 million years ago in Africa and ultimately spreading throughout the Old World.
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Neandertals
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a distinct group within the genus Homoe inhabiting Europe and Southwest Asia from approximately 30,000 to 125,000 years ago.
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Mousterian
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The tool industry found among Neandertals in Europe and Southwest Asia, and their human contemporaries in northern Africa, during the Middle Paleolithic, generally dating from about 40,000 to 125,000 years ago.
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Upper Paleolithic
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The last part (10,000-14,000 years ago) of the Old Stone Age, featuring tool industries characterized by long slim blades and an explosion of creative symbolic forms.
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burin
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a stone tool with chisel-like edges
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atlatl
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a wooden device used by the Aztec indians in mexico that is 1 to 2 feet long with a hook on the end for throwing a spear.
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multiregional hypothesis
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the hypothesis that modern humans originated through a process of simultaneous local transition from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens throughout the inhabited world.
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recent African origins hypothesis
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The hypothesis that all modern people are derived from one single population of archaic H. sapiens from Africa who migrated out of Africa after 100,000 years ago, replacing all other archaic forms due to their superior cultural capabilities. Also called the "Eve" or "Out of Africa" hypothesis.
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race
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In biology, a subgroup within a species, not scientifically applicable to humans because there exist no subspecies within modern Homo sapiens.
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German anatomist Johann Blumenbach (1752-1840)
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father of physical anthropology; white black red and yellow; wrote "On the natural variety of mankind." caucasians superior
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melanin
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a dark pigment in the skin's outer layer
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language
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a system of communication using sounds or gestures that are put together in meaningful ways according to a set of rules
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signal
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an instinctive sound or gesture that has a natural or self-evident meaning.
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liguistics
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the modern scientific study of all aspects of language
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phonetics
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the systematic identification and description of distinctive speech sounds in a language
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phonology
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the study of language sounds
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phoneme
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the smallest unit of sound that makes a difference in meaning in a language
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morphology
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the study of patterns or rules of word formation in a language (including such things as rules concerning verb tense, pluralization, and compound words)
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morpheme
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the smallest unit of sound that carries a meaning in language. It is distinctive from a phoneme, which can alter meaning but has no meaning by itself.
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syntax
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the patterns or rules by which morphemes are arranged into phrases and sentences
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grammar
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the entire formal structure of a language, including morphology and syntax.
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form classes
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the parts of speech or categories of words that function the same way in a sentence
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substitution frames
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"I see a ____." Fill in word to see if it fits
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language family
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a group of languages descended from a single ancestral language
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linguistic divergence
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the development of different languages from a single ancestral language
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glottochronology
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In linguistics, a method for identifying the approximate time that languages branched off from a common ancestor. It is based on analyzing core vocabularies.
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core vocabularies
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the most basic and long-lasting words in any language- pronouns, lower numerals, and names for body parts and natural objects
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linguistic nationalism
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the attempt by the ethnic minorites and even countries to proclaim independence by purging their language of foreign terms
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Sociolinguistics
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the study of the relationship between languages and society through examining how social categories (such as age, gender, ethnicity, religion, occupation, and class) influence the use and significance of distinctive styles of speech
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gendered speech
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distinct male and female speech patterns, which vary across social and cultural settings.
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dialects
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varying forms of a language that reflect particular religions, occupations, or social classes and that are similar enough to be mutually intelligible.
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code switching
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changing from one level of language to another as the situation demands, whether from one language to another or from one dialect of a language to another.
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ethnolinguistics
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a branch of linguistics that studies the relationships between language and culture and how they mutually influence and inform each other.
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linguistic relativity
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the idea that distinctions encoded in one language are unique to that language
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linguistic determinism
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the idea that language to some extent shapes the way in which we view and think about the world around us; sometimes called the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis after its originators Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Lee Whorf.
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receptive or passive bilingualism
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the ability to comprehend two languages but express oneself in only one
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gesture
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facial expressions and bodily postures and motions that convey intended as well as subconcious messages
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kinesics
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a system of notating and analyzing postures, facial expressions, and bodily motions that convey messages
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60% of our communication takes place:
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nonverbaly
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proxemics
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the cross-cultural study of humankind's perception and use of space
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Halls 4 categories of proxemically relevant spaces or body distances
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intimate (0 to 18 inches); personal-casual (1 1/2 to 4 feet); social-consultive (4 to 12 feet); and public distance (more than 12 feet)
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paralanguage
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voice effects that accompany language and convey meaning. These include vocalizations such as giggling, groaning, or sighing, as well as voice qualities such as pitch and tempo.
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tonal languages
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a language in which the sound pitch of a spoken word is an essential part of its pronounciation and meaning.
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displacement
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referring to things and events removed in time and space
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writing system
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a set of visible or tactile signs used to represent units of language in a systematic way
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alphabet
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a series of symbols representing the sounds of a language arranged in a traditional order.
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self-awareness
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the ability to identify oneself as an individual, to reflect on oneself, and to evaluate oneself.
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naming ceremony
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a special event or ritual to mark the naming of a child
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spatial orientation
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the ability to get from one object or place to another
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temporal orientation
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gives people a sense of their place in time and is part of the behavioral environment
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normative orientation
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moral values, ideals, and principles, which are purely cultural in origin
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personality
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the distinctive way a person thinks, feels, and behaves.
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dependence training
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child-rearing practices that foster compliance in the performance of assigned tasks and dependence on the domestic group, rather than reliance on oneself.
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independence training
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child-rearing practices that foster independence, self-reliance, and personal achievement.
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modal personality
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the body of character traits that occur with the highest frequency in a culturally bounded population
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core values
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those values especially promoted by a particular culture
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intersexual
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a person born with reproductive organs, genitalia, and/ or chromosomes that are not exculsively male or female.
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transgender
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a person who crosses over or occupies a culturally accepted position in the binary male-female gender construction.
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ethnic psychosis
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a mental disorder specific to a particular ethnic group
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cultural adaptation
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a complex of ideas, activities, and technologies that enable people to survive and even thrive.
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ecosystem
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a system, or a functioning whole, composed of both the natural environment and all the organisms living within it.
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cultural evolution
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culture change over time (not to be confused with progress)
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progress
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the notion that humans are moving forward to a better, more advanced stage in their cultural development toward perfection.
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convergent evolution
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In cultural evolution, the development of similar cultural adaptations to similar environmental conditions by different peoples with different ancestral cultures
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parallel evolution
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In cultural evolution, the development of similar cultural adaptations to similar environmental conditions by peoples whose ancestral cultures were already somewhat alike.
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culture area
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a geographic region in which a number of societies follow similar patterns of life
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culture core
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cultural features that are fundamental in the society's way of making its living- including food- producing techniques, knowledge of available resources, and the work arrangements involved in applying those techniques to the local environment.
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food foraging
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Hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plant foods
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carrying capacity
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the number of people that the available resources can support at a given level of food-getting techniques
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density of local realations
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the number and intensity of interactions among the members of a camp.
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Neolithic
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The New Stone Age; prohistoric period beginning about 10,000 years ago in which peoples possessed stone-based technologies and depended on domesticated plants and/ or animals.
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Neolithic transition
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Sometimes referred to as Neolithic revolution. The profound culture change beginning about 10,000 years ago and associated with the early domestication of plants and animals, and settlement in permanent villages.
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horticulture
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coltivation of crops carried out with simple hand tools such as digging sticks or hoes.
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slash-and-burn cultivation
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swidden farming; an extensive form of horticulture in which the natural vegetation is cut, the slash is subsequently burned, and crops are then planted among the ashes.
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agriculture
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the cultivation of food plants in soil prepared and maintained for crop production. Involves using technologies other than hand tools, such as irrigation, fertilizers, and the wooden or metal plow pulled by harnessed draft animals
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transhumance
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"vertical" seasonal movement of livestock between high altitude summer pastures and lowland valleys
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pastoralism
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breeding and managing large herds of domesticated grazing animals, such as goats, sheep, cattle, horses, llamas, or camels.
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peasants
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a rural cultivator whose surpluses are transferred to a dominant group of rulars that uses the surpluses both to underwrite its own standard of living and to distribute the remainder to groups in society that do not farm but must be fed for their specific goods and services in turn
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economic system
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an organized group arrangement for producing, distributing, and consuming goods.
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technology
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tools and other material equipment, together with the knowledge of how to make and use them.
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flexible/ integrated pattern
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men and women perform up to 35 percent of activities with approximately equal participation, and tasks appropriate for one gender are performed by the other
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segregated pattern
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define almost all work as masculing or feminine. Rarely engage in joint efforts. male superiority
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dual sex configuration
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men and women carry out work separately but the relationship between them is one of balanced complementarity rather than inequality.
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reciprocity
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the exchange of goods and services, of approximately equal value, between two parties.
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generalized reciprocity
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a mode of exchange in which the value of what is given in not calculated, nor is the time of repayment specified.
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balanced reciprocity
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a mode of exchange in which the giving and the recieving are specific as to the value of the goods and the time of their delivery.
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negative reciprocity
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a form or exchange in which the aim is to get something for as little as possible. Neither fair nor balanced, it may involve hard bargaining, manipulation, and outright cheating.
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silent trade
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a form of barter in which no verbal communication takes place
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Kula ring
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a form of balanced reciprocity that reinforces trade relations among the seafaring Trobriand people, who inhabit a large ring of islands in the southwestern Pacific Ocean off the eastern coast of Papua New Guinea, and other Melansians.
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redistribution
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a form of exchange in which goods flow into a central place, where they are sorted, counted, and reallocated
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conspicuous consumption
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a showy display of wealth for social prestige
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potlach
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on the northwest coast of North America, a ceremonial event in which a village chief publically gives away stockpiled food and other goods that signify wealth.
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prestige ceremony
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creation of a surplus for the express purpose of gaining prestige through a public display of wealth that is given away as gifts
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leveling mechanism
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a cultural obligation compelling prosperous members of a community to give away goods, host public feasts, provide free service, or otherwise demonstrate generosity so that no one permanently accumulates significantly more wealth than anyone else.
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market exchange
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the buying and selling of goods and services, with prices set by rules of supply and demand.
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money
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something used to make payments for other goods and services as well as to measure their value.
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informal economy
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a network of producing and circulating marketable commodities, labor, and services that for various reasons escape governmental control.
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marriage
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a culturally sanctioned union between two or more people that establishes certain rights and obligations between the people, between them and their children, and between them and their in-laws. Such marriage rights and obligations most often include sex, labor, property, child rearing, exchange, and status.
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consinguineal kin
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biologically related relatives, commonly referred to as blood relatives.
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affinal kin
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people related through marriage
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incest taboo
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the prohibition of sexual contact between certain close relatives, usually parent and child and sibling relations at a minimum.
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endogamy
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marriage within a particular group or category of individuals
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exogamy
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marriage outside the group
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monogamy
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marriage in which both partners have just one spouse
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serial monogamy
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a marriage form in which an individual marries or lives with a series of partners in succession
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polygamy
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one individual having multiple spouses at the same time
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polygyny
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marriage of a man to two or more women at the same time; a form of polygamy
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polyandry
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marriage of a woman to two or more men at one time; a form of polygamy
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group marriage
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marriage in which several men and women have sexual access to one another. co-marriage
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fictive marriage
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marriage by proxy to the symbols of someone not physically present to establish the social status of a spouse and heirs.
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parallel cousin
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child of a father's brother or a mother's sister
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cross cousin
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child of a mother's brother or a father's sister
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bride-price
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money or valuable goods paid by the groom or his family to the bride's family upon marriage. bride wealth.
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bride service
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a designated period of time after marriage when the groom works for the bride's family.
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dowry
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payment of a woman's inheritance at the time of her marriage, either to her or to her husband.
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family
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two or more people related by blood, marriage, or adoption. The family may take many forms, ranging from a single parent with one or more children, to a married couple or polygamous spouses with offspring, to several generations of parents and their children.
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household
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the basic residential unit where economic production, consumption, inheritance, child rearing, and shelter are organized and carried out.
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conjugal family
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a family established through marriage
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consanguineal family
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a family of "blood relatives" consisting of related women, their brothers, and the women's offspring.
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nuclear family
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a group of two parents and dependent offspring, which may include a stepparent, stepsiblings, and adopted children.
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extended family
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two or more closely related nuclear families clustered together into a large domestic group
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patrilocal residence
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a residence pattern in which a married couple linves in the husband's father's home
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matrilocal residence
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a residence pattern in which a married couple lives in the wife's mother's place of residence.
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ambilocal residence
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a residence pattern in which a married couple may choose either martrilocal or patrilocal residence.
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neolocal residence
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a pattern in which a married couple establish their household in a location apart from either the husband's or the wife's relatives.
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kinship
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a network of relatives within which individuals possess certain mutual rights and obligations
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descent group
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any kin-ordered social group with a membership in the direct line of descent from a real (historical) or fictional common ancestor
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unilineal descent
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descent that establishes group membership exclusively through either male or female line
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martilineal descent
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descent traced exclusively through the female line to establish group membership
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partilineal descent
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descent traced exclusively through the male line to establish group membership
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lineage
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a unilineal kinship group descended from a common ancestor or founder who lived four to six generations ago, and in which relationships among members can be exactly stated in genealogical terms
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clan
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an extended unilineal kinship group, often consisting of several lineages, whose members claim common descent from a remote ancestor, usually legendary or mythological.
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fission
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the splitting of a descent group into two or more new descent groups
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totemism
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the belief that people are related to particular animals, plants, or natural objects by virtue of descent from common ancestral spirits.
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phratry
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a unilineal descent group composed of at least two clans that supposedly share a common ancestry, whether or not they really do.
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moiety
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each group that results from a division of a society into two halves on the basis of descent
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kindred
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an individual's close blood relatives on the maternal and paternal sides of his or her family
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EGO
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the central person from whom the degree of each relationship is traced.
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Eskimo system
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Kinship reckoning in which the nuclear family is emphasized by specifically identifying the mother, father, brother, and sister, while lumping together all other relatives into broad categories such as uncle, aunt, and cousin. Lineal system
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Hawaiian system
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kinship reckoning in which all relatives of the same sex and generation are referred to by the same term. generational system
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Iroquois system
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Kinship reckoning in which a father and father's brother are referred to by a single term, as are a mother and mother's sister, but a father's sister and mother's brother are given separate terms. Parallel cousins are classified with brothers and sisters, while cross cousins are classified separately but not equated with relatives of some other generation.
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new reproductive technologies (NRTs)
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Alternative means of reproduction such as surrogate motherhood and in vitro fertilization.
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age grade
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an organized category of people based on age; every individual passes through a series of such categories over his or her lifetime.
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age set
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a formally established group of people born during a certain time span who move through the series of age-grade categories together.
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common-interest associations
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associations that result from an act of joining based on sharing particular activities, objectives, values, or beliefs.
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stratified societies
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societies in which people are hierarchically divided and ranked into social strata, or layers, and do not share equally basic resources that support survival, influence, and prestige.
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eqalitarian societies
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societies in which everyone has about equal rank, access to, and power over basic resources
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social class
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a category of individuals in a stratified society who enjoy equal presige according to the system of evaluation
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caste
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a closed social class in a stratified society in which membership is determined by birth and fixed for life.
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social mobility
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upward or downward change in one's social class position in a stratified society.
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4 basic kinds of political systems
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bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and states.
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power
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the ability of individuals or groups to impose their will upon others and make them do things even against their own wants or wishes
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political organization
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the way power is distributed and embedded in society; the means through which a society creates and maintains social order
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band
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a relatively small and loosely organized kin-ordered group that inhabits a specific territory and that may splot periodically into smaller extended family groups that are politically independent.
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tribe
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In anthropology, refers to a range of kin-ordered groups that are politically integrated by some unifying factor and whose members share a common ancestry, identity, culture, language, and territory.
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chiefdom
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a regional polity in which two or more local groups are organized under a single chief, who is at the head of a ranked hierarchy of people.
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state
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In anthropology, a centralized policy involving large numbers of people within a defined territory who are divided into social classes and organized and directed by a formal government that has the capacity and authority to make laws, and use force to defend the social order
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nation
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a people who share a collective identity based on common culture, language, territorial base, and history.
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legitimacy
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the right of political leaders to govern- to hold, use, and allocate power- based on the values of a particular society.
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cultural control
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control through beliefs and values deeply internalized in the minds of individuals
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social control
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external control through open coercion
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sanction
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an externalized social control designed to encourage conformity to social norms
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law
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formal rules of conduct that, when violated, effectuate negative sanctions
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negotiation
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the use of direct argument and compromise by the parties to a dispute to arrive voluntarily at a mutually satisfactory agreement
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mediation
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settlement of a dispute through negotiation assisted by an unbiased third party
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adjunction
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mediation with an unbiased third party making the ultimate decision.
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