Csd Final Exam

Front 1

this is the outer portion of the kidney

Back 1

renal cortex

Front 2

this is the inner portion of the kidney

Back 2

medulla

Front 3

what two parts of the kidney make up the nephron, the functional unit?

Back 3

the cortex and the medulla

Front 4

this is the kidney's central cavity; the urine drains here via medullary collecting ducts, and they are continuous with the ureter draining that kidney

Back 4

renal pelvis

Front 5

the urine flows from the kidneys through these tubes into the urinary bladder

Back 5

ureters

Front 6

If the clearance of any substance is greater than the GFR, what process is that substance undergoing, secretion or absorption?

Back 6

secretion

Front 7

when the clearance of a substance is less than the GFR, what process is that substance undergoing, secretion or absorption?

Back 7

absorption

Front 8

What is the major driving force of filtration?

Back 8

hydrostatic pressure in the glomerular capillaries

Front 9

Where is the filtration force the greatest, at the afferent or efferent end of the glomerular capillaries?

Back 9

afferent

Front 10

What is the average filtration rate per day?

Back 10

180 L/day

Front 11

what is the average filtration rate per minute?

Back 11

115-125 mL/min

Front 12

about how many times is plasma volume filtered in a day?

Back 12

60 times

Front 13

what is a normal filtration fraction?

Back 13

.15-.20

Front 14

what is the measure of the maximum transport rate for a substance?

Back 14

tubular maximum

Front 15

what hormone increases sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion?

Back 15

aldosterone

Front 16

what hormone increases potassium reabsorption and sodium excretion?

Back 16

atrial natriuretic factor

Front 17

what hormone increases water reabsorption by increasing the number of water channels in the collecting duct (therebody decreasing urine production)?

Back 17

anti-diuretic hormone

Front 18

In what organ is renin synthesized and secreted?

Back 18

the kidney

Front 19

what specialized cells in the kidney synthesize and secrete renin?

Back 19

granular cells (located in the juxtaglomerular apparatus)

Front 20

a decreased level of what body electrolyte stimulates an increase in renin secretion?

Back 20

sodium

Front 21

Renin catalyzes the production of what two hormones?

Back 21

angiotensin-II and aldosterone

Front 22

where is aldosterone synthesized and secreted from?

Back 22

renal cortex

Front 23

aldosterone is stimulated by a low concentration of what plasma electrolyte?

Back 23

sodium

Front 24

when the aldosterone concentraiton is high, is essentiallyall of the sodium reaching the distal tubule and collecting ducts secreted or reabsorbed?

Back 24

reabsorbed

Front 25

which hormone is the major determinant of passive water reabsorption in the collecting ducts?

Back 25

ADH/vasopressin

Front 26

Where is ADH synthesized and secreted from?

Back 26

posterior pituitary

Front 27

What stimulates the secretion of ADH?

Back 27

decreased body water concentration, decrease in blood pressure, or blood volume

Front 28

where is atrial natriuretic peptide synthesized and secreted from?

Back 28

cardiac atria cells

Front 29

what stimulates secretion of atrial natriuretic peptide?

Back 29

expansion of plasma volume that accompanies an increase in body sodium (indirectly stimulated by high sodium concentration)

Front 30

what two things does ANP inhibit?

Back 30

sodium reabsorption and aldosterone secretion (which therefore allows more sodium excretion in the urine)

Front 31

where is erythropoeitin synthesized and secreted from?

Back 31

mainly the kidneys, but to a lesser extent from the liver

Front 32

what stimulates erythropoeitin secretion?

Back 32

decreased oxygen delivery to the kidneys

Front 33

What is the approximate obligatory water loss per day?

Back 33

0.4444 L/day to eliminate organic wastes and acids

Front 34

what is a breakdown product of nitrogen metabolism?

Back 34

urea

Front 35

what is a breakdown product of purine metabolism?

Back 35

uric acid

Front 36

what is the breakdown product of the muscle protein creatine?

Back 36

creatinine

Front 37

this is a major hormone secreted by the kidney that regulates calcium absorption in the intestine

Back 37

vitamin D3

Front 38

what electrolyte imbalances would cause hypotension?

Back 38

hypokalemia, hypocalcemia, hypermagnesemia

Front 39

what electrolyte imbalances would cause engorged neck veins?

Back 39

hypercalcemia, hypernatremia, sometimes hypomagnesemia

Front 40

what electrolyte imbalances would cause tachycardia?

Back 40

hyperkalemia, hypernatremia

Front 41

what electrolyte imbalances would cause bounding pulse?

Back 41

hyperkalemia, hypernatremia, hypercalcemia

Front 42

what electrolyte imbalance would cause orthostatic hypotension?

Back 42

hypokalemia

Front 43

what electrolyte imbalance would cause edema?

Back 43

hypernatremia

Front 44

what electrolyte imbalance would cause dyspnea?

Back 44

hypernatremia

Front 45

excess water intake leads to what electrolyte imbalance?

Back 45

hyponatremia

Front 46

trauma and crush injuries are associated with what type of electrolyte imbalance?

Back 46

hyperkalemia

Front 47

what electrolyte imbalance is characterized by anxiety, headaches, muscle twitching and weakness, confusion, hypotension, tachycardia, thready pulse, vasomotor collapse, nausea, cyanosis, oliguria/anuria, and cold clammy skin?

Back 47

hyponatremia

Front 48

what electrolyte imbalance is characterized by tachycardia and later bradycardia, cardiac arrest, nausea, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, muscle weakness and flaccid paralysis, oliguria/anuria, and metabolic acidosis?

Back 48

hyperkalemia

Front 49

what are the four sources of acids in the body?

Back 49

(1) oxidation of glucose and fat
(2) anaerobic glycolysis
(3) metabolism of cysteine
(4) metabolism of phosphoproteins

Front 50

when the pH lowers, is it more acidic or alkaline?

Back 50

acidic

Front 51

when the pH gets higher, is it more acidic or alkaline?

Back 51

alkaline

Front 52

does hypoventilation result in acidosis or alkalosis?

Back 52

acidosis

Front 53

does hyperventilation result in acidosis or alkalosis?

Back 53

alkalosis

Front 54

what are the three ways of the body to regulate hydrogen balance?

Back 54

(1) body buffer systems (bicarbonate, phosphate)
(2) respiratory regulation
(3) renal regulation

Front 55

in what three forms is H+ excreted in the urine?

Back 55

free H+, NH4+, and H2PO4-

Front 56

if the ECF has a low pH, the kidney will (reabsorb, excrete) HCO3- and will (reabsorb, excrete) H+(causing a net gain of plasma HCO3-)

Back 56

reabsorb HCO3-
excrete H+

Front 57

If ECF pH is high, the kidney will (reabsorb, excrete) HCO3- and will (reabsorb, excrete) H+ (causing a net loss of HCO3-)

Back 57

excrete HCO3-
reabsorb H+

Front 58

what is the primary disturbance that causes a respiratory acidosis?

Back 58

elevated PaCO2

Front 59

what is the primary disturbance that causes a respiratory alkalosis?

Back 59

decreased PaCO2

Front 60

what is the primary disturbance that causes a metabolic acidosis?

Back 60

decreased plasma HCO3-

Front 61

what is the primary disturbance that causes a metabolic alkalosis?

Back 61

elevated plasma HCO3-

Front 62

this is a relatively stable condition of the internal environment that results from regulatory system actions

Back 62

homeostasis

Front 63

any chemical messenger that travels through the body fluids (chemical messenger synthesized by specific endocrine cells in response to certain stimuli and secreted into the blood, which carries it to target cells)

Back 63

hormone

Front 64

where are norepinephrine and epinephrine synthesized and secreted from?

Back 64

adrenal medulla

Front 65

what are the four most common amine hormones?

Back 65

dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, thyroid hormone

Front 66

from what substance are the amine hormones synthesized?

Back 66

tyrosine (amino acid)

Front 67

where is dopamine synthesized and secreted from?

Back 67

the hypothalamus

Front 68

what is the largest class of hormone?

Back 68

protein/peptide hormones

Front 69

what type of hormones are responsible for a second messenger system when they bind to a plasma membrane receptor?

Back 69

peptide hormones

Front 70

what are steroid hormones synthesized from?

Back 70

cholesterol

Front 71

what are the three gonadal hormones?

Back 71

estrogen, progestin, and androgens

Front 72

what three types of steroid hormones are secreted from the adrenal cortex?

Back 72

mineralocorticoids (aldosterone), glucocorticoids (cortisol), and androgens

Front 73

what are the four types of signals that can induce hormone secretion?

Back 73

ions, nutrients, neurotransmitters, and other hormones

Front 74

this type of response of a cell to a hormone is the stimulation of transcription and translation (in order to stimulate protein synthesis)

Back 74

genomic

Front 75

this type of response to a hormone is the flux of a substance in or out of the cell, or the inhibition or excitation of metabolic pathways (2nd messenger pathways)

Back 75

nongenomic

Front 76

this is the unbound fraction of hormones that indicates what is available to tissues for metabolism and excretion

Back 76

free hormones

Front 77

this type of hormone effect is when the hormone stimulates the target gland to secrete another hormone

Back 77

tropic

Front 78

this type of hormone effect is when the hormone stimulates the target gland to grow

Back 78

trophic

Front 79

this effect occurs when the presence of one hormone stimulates the action of other hormones

Back 79

permissive effect

Front 80

this type of communication occurs when the cell secretes the hormone, and it travels through the ECF to another cell's receptor

Back 80

paracrine

Front 81

this type of communication occurs when the cell secretes the hormone, and the hormone comes back to the same cell and affects it in some way

Back 81

autocrine

Front 82

what hypothalamic hormone stimulates the release of ACTH from the anterior pituitary gland?

Back 82

corticotropin-releasing hormone

Front 83

what hypothalamic hormone stimulates the release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary gland?

Back 83

GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone)

Front 84

what hypothalamic hormone stimulates the release of GH from the anterior pituitary gland?

Back 84

GHRH

Front 85

what hypothalamic hormone stimulates the release of TSH from the anterior pituitary gland?

Back 85

TRH (thyrotropin releasing hormone)

Front 86

what hypothalamic hormone inhibits the release of prolactin from the anterior pituitary gland?

Back 86

dopamine

Front 87

in females, this AP hormone stimulates the female gonads to produce estradiol and progesterone

Back 87

FSH

Front 88

in males, this AP hormone stimulates the male gonads to produce testosterone

Back 88

LH

Front 89

this AP hormone stimulates the liver and the body's cells to produce insulin-like growth factor (IGF)

Back 89

growth hormone

Front 90

this AP hormone stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete T3 and T4

Back 90

TSH

Front 91

this AP hormone causes lactation in the female breast

Back 91

prolactin

Front 92

this AP hormone stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids, which regulate blood glucose

Back 92

ACTH

Front 93

what are the two main hormones secreted from the posterior pituitary gland?

Back 93

ADH and oxytocin

Front 94

this PP hormone stimulates the insertion of water channels into the renal tubule cells; it stimulates contraction of the vascular smooth muscle and thus the vasoconstriction function, decreasing urine production

Back 94

ADH

Front 95

this PP hormone stimulates the ejection of milk from the female breast (also causes uterine contractions); it is also implicated in pair-bonding

Back 95

oxytocin

Front 96

what are the four major roles of thyroid hormone in the body?

Back 96

(1) growth and development of the fetal brain
(2) growth and development of the child
(3) sets the basal metabolic rate/generates internal heat
(4) potentiates the effectiveness of epinephrine and norepinephrine

Front 97

these types of enzymes are responsible for converting T4 into T3

Back 97

deiodinating enzymes

Front 98

which iodothyronine is the most biologically active in the body?

Back 98

T3

Front 99

what are the two iodothyronine compounds released by the thyroid gland

Back 99

T3 and T4

Front 100

what iodothyrodine is released in the highest amount from the thyroid gland?

Back 100

T4

Front 101

a combination of two diiodotyrosines forms what iodothyrodine compound?

Back 101

T4

Front 102

a combination of one monoiodotyrosine and one diiodotyrosine forms what iodothyrodine compound?

Back 102

T3

Front 103

what enzyme catalyzes the reaction that forms the T3 and T4 molecules?

Back 103

thyroid peroxidase

Front 104

what is the major hormone product of the synthesis of T3 and T4?

Back 104

thyroxine

Front 105

where is thyroxine stored?

Back 105

the thyroid gland (in the colloid of the follicle)

Front 106

what is the precursor for the MIT and DIT that eventually combine to form T3 and T4?

Back 106

thyroglobulin

Front 107

what thyroid disorder is myxedema most commonly associated with?

Back 107

hypothyroidism

Front 108

this sign of hypothyroidism occurs when extracellular compounds secreted by connective tissue cells accumulate and water becomes trapped with them, causing a characteristic puffiness of the face and other regions

Back 108

myxedema

Front 109

which type of thyroid disorder predisposes an individual to rhabdomyolysis?

Back 109

hypothyroidism

Front 110

this disorder is a breakdown of muscle fibers, resulting in a release of muscle fiber contents (especially myoglobin) into the blood stream; some of these are harmful to the kidneys and can result in kidney damage

Back 110

rhabdomyolysis

Front 111

what are the most common symptoms of rhabdomyolysis?

Back 111

tea colored (dark) urine, generalized weakness, muscle stiffness or aching, muscle tenderness, weakness of the affected muscle, joint pain, seizures, and unintended weight gain

Front 112

when do you see peak GH secretion in the circadian pattern?

Back 112

about 1 hour after the onset of deep sleep

Front 113

this compound is released by the liver upon stimulation from growth hormone; it acts as an autocrine or paracrine agent to stimulate the differentiating chondrocytes in the epiphyseal plates of the bones to undergo cell division

Back 113

insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1)

Front 114

what two types of disorders occur when chronic, excess amounts of growth hormone are secreted into the blood?

Back 114

acromegaly and gigantism

Front 115

this response to excess growth hormone occurs when the disorder occurs before puberty, when the epiphyseal plates are open and linear growth is still possible

Back 115

gigantism

Front 116

this rresponse to excess growth hormone occurs when the disorder occurs after puberty, when linear growth is no longer possible; instead, there is growth in the hands, feet, forehead, and jaw, etc.

Back 116

acromegaly

Front 117

what area of the adrenal gland synthesizes the three types of corticoids?

Back 117

cortex

Front 118

what area of the adrenal gland synthesizes epinephrine and norepinephrine

Back 118

medulla

Front 119

what is the precursor for the synthesis of the adrenal cortex corticoids?

Back 119

cholesterol

Front 120

in the adrenal cortex, what is the free cholesterol that is taken it get converted to (which is a precursor for the corticoid hormones)?

Back 120

pregnenolone

Front 121

what corticoid hormone is critical in maintaining blood glucose during times of fasting or starvation?

Back 121

cortisol

Front 122

what type of muscle fibers are most affected by high cortisol in the body?

Back 122

type IIB

Front 123

synthetic glucocorticoids are a hallmark treatment in what situation to act as an immunosuppressant?

Back 123

organ transplantation

Front 124

what is the general term for any situation in which plasma cortisol levels are chronically lower than normal?

Back 124

adrenal insufficiency

Front 125

when cortisol levels are low, what hormone levels are increasingly high due to the loss of negative feedback?

Back 125

ACTH

Front 126

this disorder occurs when excess cortisol diminishes protein synthesis and facilitates protein degradation in cardiac and skeletal muscle

Back 126

steroid myopathy

Front 127

what two types of cells arise from the myeloid lineage of leukocytes?

Back 127

neutrophils and monocytes

Front 128

what do monocytes eventually become?

Back 128

macrophages

Front 129

what two types of cells arise from the lymphoid lineage of leukocytes?

Back 129

B and T cells

Front 130

where do the B lymphocytes mature?

Back 130

the bone marrow

Front 131

where do the T lymphocytes mature?

Back 131

the thymus gland

Front 132

this is a nonspecific mechanism of intraellular destruction of microbes, in which an immune cell will engulf and destroy an antigen

Back 132

phagocytosis

Front 133

what are the two most important phagocytic cells in the body?

Back 133

neutrophils and macrophages

Front 134

this is the immune function that marks a substance for elimination from the body

Back 134

opsonization

Front 135

is the complement protein/MAC cascade involved in specific or nonspecific immunity?

Back 135

nonspecific

Front 136

are macrophages and neutrophils involved in specific or nonspecific immunity?

Back 136

nonspecific

Front 137

which type of specific immunity are B cells associated with, humoral or cell mediated?

Back 137

humoral

Front 138

which type of specific immunity are T cells associated with, humoral or cell mediated?

Back 138

cell mediated

Front 139

is IL-1 involved in specific or non-specific immunity?

Back 139

nonspecific

Front 140

is IL-2 involved in specific or non specific immunity?

Back 140

specific

Front 141

what are the circulating molecules that are associated with specific immunity?

Back 141

antibodies/immunoglobulins

Front 142

what are the soluble mediators that are associated with the humoral specific immunity?

Back 142

cytokines (lymphokines)

Front 143

what are the soluble mediators that are associated with the cell mediated specific immunity?

Back 143

lymphokines and perforin

Front 144

this type of specific immunity is produced after natural exposure to an antigen or immunization

Back 144

active

Front 145

this type of specific immunity is the transfer of preformed antibodies or T-lymphocytes into the recipient

Back 145

passive

Front 146

this is the immediate (local) biochemical and cellular response of the body to cellular trauma in vascularized tissue

Back 146

inflammation

Front 147

about how long does acute inflammation last?

Back 147

8-10 days

Front 148

what is the time frame in which inflammation becomes considered chronic?

Back 148

more than two weeks

Front 149

what are the five cardinal signs of inflammation?

Back 149

redness, heat, swelling, pain, and loss of function

Front 150

these substances act to guide movement of the white blood cells out of the blood into the area of inflammation

Back 150

chemokines

Front 151

what are the first phagocytic cells to arrive at the inflamed area?

Back 151

neutrophils

Front 152

this is the process by which WBCs attach to the endothelial cell and ultimately move along the vessel wall

Back 152

marginalization

Front 153

this is any foreign molecule that stimulates an immune response

Back 153

antigen

Front 154

these are cells that present and antigen, complexed with MHC proteins on its surface, to T cells

Back 154

antigen-presenting cells

Front 155

CD8 cells recognize antigens that are complexed with what MHC complex?

Back 155

I

Front 156

CD4 cells recognize antigens that are complexed with what MHC complex?

Back 156

II

Front 157

this is a lymphocyte that, upon activation, proliferates and differentiates into an antibody-secreting plasma cell; able to recognize antigens in the soluble form and secrete Ig to eliminate antigens

Back 157

B lymphocytes

Front 158

these are a specific type of T cell that function to help the immune response; they secrete IL-2, stimulating further proliferation of themselves and also cytokine secretion

Back 158

CD4

Front 159

these are the cells within the B cell that secrete antibodies

Back 159

plasma cells

Front 160

these are the cells that are set aside after lymphocyte activation that are posed to recognize if the antigen returns in the future

Back 160

memory cells

Front 161

these are a specific type of T cell that function to recognize and eliminate antigens; following activation, they produce a lytic protein called perforin that will kill antigen cells

Back 161

CD8 cells (cytotoxic)

Front 162

this is a type of leukocyte that leaves the blood stream and is transformed into a macrophage

Back 162

monocyte

Front 163

this is a cell that phagocytizes foreign matter, processes it, presents the antigen to the lymphocytes, and secretes cytokines involved in inflammation

Back 163

macrophages

Front 164

these cells are the first of the phagocytic cells to arrive at an inflamed area and ingest bacteria, dead cells, and debris; they also release chemicals that are involved in inflammation

Back 164

neutrophils

Front 165

these are cells that function to destroy multicellular parasites and participate in immediate hypersensitivity reactions

Back 165

eosinophils

Front 166

these are cells that release histamine in an inflamed area (circulatory counterpart to mast cells)

Back 166

basophils

Front 167

these cells are found throughout connective tissues, particularly beneath the epithelial surfaces of the body; they are derived from bone marrow cells that have left the blood to enter connective tissue, where they differentiate and undergo cell division; they secrete locally acting chemical messengers such as histamine that are importnat in inflammation responses

Back 167

mast cells

Front 168

these are protein messengers that regulate host cell division and function in both nonspecific and specific immune defenses; they link the components of the immune system together

Back 168

cytokines

Front 169

these protiens make up about 10% of the plasma proteins; activation of this system leads to a cascade of events that produces tow major effects-enhances inflammation and produces MAC

Back 169

complement proteins

Front 170

this pathway of activating complement proteins occurs when there is binding of antibody-antigen complex with complement protein C1 (involves antibodies IgM and IgG)

Back 170

classical

Front 171

this pathway of complement protein activation occurs when bacterial or fungal cell wall polysaccharides bind with C3b; does not require the acquired immune system

Back 171

alternate

Front 172

this process guides the movement of white blood cells out of the blood into the area of inflammation by chemoattracants

Back 172

chemotaxis

Front 173

this is an inflammatory mediator secreted by mast cells and basophils that act on microcirculation to cause vasodilation and increased permeability to proteins

Back 173

histamine

Front 174

this is a group of cytokines that nonspecifically inhibit viral replication (gamma version also stimulates the killing ability of natural killer cells and macrophages)

Back 174

interferon

Front 175

these are a family of cytokines that have many effects on immune responses and host cell dfenses

Back 175

interleukins

Front 176

Sub

Back 176

Under

subdivide, subdue, subjugate, subjunctive, sublunary, submarine, submerge, subdordinate, subpoena, subscribe, subside, substitude, subterfuge, subterranean, suburb

Front 177

this compound is secreted by activated helper T cells; causes antigen activated helper T, cytotoxic T, and NK cells to proliferate and causes the activation of macrophages

Back 177

IL-2

Front 178

this complex embeds itself in the microbial plasma membrane and forms porelike channels in the membrane, making it leaky; water and salts enter the microbe, which disrupts the intracellular environment and kills it

Back 178

membrane attack complex (MAC)

Front 179

after being secreted from Cd8 cells after their activation, this complex inserts itself into the target cell's membrane and forms channels, causing the cell to become leaky and die

Back 179

perforin

Front 180

this is a general term for products of arachidonic acid metabolism and function as important inflammatory mediators

Back 180

eicosanoids

Front 181

these drugs are often used to manage chronic inflammation or acute flare ups of chronic disease, allergies, and graft rejection; function to decrease the number of circulating lymphocytes

Back 181

steroid drugs (prednisone)

Front 182

these are anti inflammatory drugs that block the cyclooxygenase pathway, blocking prostaglandins and thromboxane

Back 182

NSAIDs

Front 183

these drugs block the production of cytokines produced by the CD4 cell, in order to reduce graft rejection

Back 183

immune suppressants

Front 184

these cells are believed to regulate the other T cells and therefore function as negative feedback; possibly play a role in immune tolerance

Back 184

suppressor T cells

Front 185

what are the two primary lymphoid organs?

Back 185

bone marrow and thymus gland

Front 186

in what type of tissue do the lymphocytes become activated in order to participate in specific immune responses, primary or secondary lymphoid tissue?

Back 186

secondary

Front 187

this is the ability of the body to tolerate its own cells (not to have an immune response to self tissues)

Back 187

immune tolerance

Front 188

this process is the destruction of T cells with receptors that are capable of binding self proteins

Back 188

clonal deletion

Front 189

this process causes potentially self-reacting T cells to become unresponsive

Back 189

clonal inactivation

Front 190

what is the largest class of antibody?

Back 190

IgG

Front 191

what is the major antibody found in fetal blood?

Back 191

maternal IgG

Front 192

what is the predominant antibody upon first exposure to an antigen?

Back 192

IgM

Front 193

what is the predominant antibody upon second exposure to an antigen?

Back 193

IgG

Front 194

this antibody plays a major role in allergic responses

Back 194

IgE

Front 195

this antibody is often found in the mucosal linings of the body, and it is most common to lack these

Back 195

IgA

Front 196

this immune response occurs when someone first encounters an antigen

Back 196

primary

Front 197

this immune response occurs when someone subsequently encounters an antigen again (already having formed antibodies and memory cells for it)

Back 197

secondary

Front 198

what are the two most common ions secreted into the tubule?

Back 198

K+ and H+

Front 199

what is the normal fasting blood glucose level?

Back 199

80-90 mg/dL

Front 200

in this portion of the tubule, the tubular cells have a brush border and many mitochondria; this part of the tubule is very active, reabsorbing 100% glucose and proteins and 67% of ultrafiltrate water and electrolytes

Back 200

proximal tubule

Front 201

this part of the tubule contains no active transport, but is permeable to water and electrolyte; the counter current mechanism of flow insures that a hyperosmotic filtrate is delivered to the thick portion of the ascending limb

Back 201

loop of Henle (descending and early ascending limbs)

Front 202

this part of the tubule is impermeable to water and contains cotransport mechanism of Na, K, and 2Cl- (this forms an osmotic gradient); the filtrate becomes diluted as it goes through this area and becomes hypotonic

Back 202

thick ascending limb

Front 203

this part of the tubule is impermeable to water and does active transport of salts; here, aldosterone increases sodium reabsorption

Back 203

distal tubule

Front 204

this part of the tubule is permeable to water and contains active transport of salts; aldosterone increases sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion, ANF increases sodium excretion, and ADH increases water reabsorption

Back 204

collecting duct

Front 205

where does the final adjustment of urine osmolarity occur?

Back 205

the collecting tubule

Front 206

the pH of the blood is determined by what ratio?

Back 206

base/acid

Front 207

this is any substance that will accept an H+ ion

Back 207

base

Front 208

this is any substance that will liberate an H ion

Back 208

acid

Front 209

venous blood is slightly more (alkaline, acidic) than arterial blood because it has passed through metabolically active tissues

Back 209

acidic (7.35)

Front 210

the intracellular fluid is more (alkaline, acidic) than the ECF

Back 210

acidic (6.0-7.4)

Front 211

what are the upper and lower limits of arterial pH that are compatible with life?

Back 211

6.8-8.0

Front 212

what is the key defense mechanism in long term chronic situations of acidosis?

Back 212

bone minerals

Front 213

does the bicarbonate buffer system in the body cause a net gain or a conservation of HCO3-?

Back 213

conservation

Front 214

does the phosphate buffer system in the body cause a net gain or a conservation of HCO3-?

Back 214

net gain

Front 215

will hyperventilation cause alkalosis or acidosis?

Back 215

alkalosis

Front 216

will hypoventilation cause alkalosis or acidosis?

Back 216

acidosis

Front 217

if you went into an acidosis, would you increase or decrease your ventilation rate?

Back 217

increase

Front 218

if you went into an alkalosis, would you increase or decrease your ventilation rate?

Back 218

decrease

Front 219

if you are in an acidosis, would you reabsorb or excrete HCO3-?

Back 219

reabsorb

Front 220

if you are in an alkalosis, would you reabsorb or excrete HCO3-?

Back 220

excrete

Front 221

what are some of the common causes for respiratory acidosis?

Back 221

COPD, decrease in ventilation from brain damage, drug overdose, sleep apnea, or a problem with gas exchange (as in pneumonia)

Front 222

what are some of the common causes for respiratory alkalosis?

Back 222

hyperventilation, altitude, neurologic pathology, gram (-) sepsis infection

Front 223

what are some of the common causes for metabolic acidosis?

Back 223

diabetes (especially acute), severe diarrhea (losing HCO3 through GI tract), vomiting intestinal contents

Front 224

what are some of the common causes for metabolic alkalosis?

Back 224

vomiting gastric contents alone (losing H+), excess aldosterone, loop diuretics, home remedies

Front 225

this is a tissue that is a collectionof cells that synthesize and secrete a chemical messenger

Back 225

endocrine

Front 226

these are some well known second messenger systems

Back 226

adenylyl cyclase-->camp
phospholipase C-->IP3 and DAG
tyrosine kinase
guanylate cyclase-->cGMP
calcium-->activates protein kinase
AKT pathway

Front 227

what type of receptors on the cell that produces the steroid hormone capture the cholesterol needed?

Back 227

LDL receptors

Front 228

what two enzymes initiate steroid hormone synthesis in the cell?

Back 228

adenylyl cyclase (cAMP) and protein kinase A

Front 229

what enzyme releases free cholesterol during the formation of a steroid hormone?

Back 229

cholesterol esterase

Front 230

what enzymes on the mitochondria of a steroid hormone producing cell play a role in the synthesis of the cholesterol intermediate?

Back 230

P450 enzymes

Front 231

about how many cells in the anterior pituitary gland make growth hormone?

Back 231

50%

Front 232

what region is the chief integrative center for the autonomic nervous system?

Back 232

hypothalamus

Front 233

ACTH stimulates what area to synthesize and secrete glucocorticoids?

Back 233

the adrenal cortex

Front 234

what disease is a common example of hyposecretion?

Back 234

of insulin, diabetes mellitus type I

Front 235

what disease is a common example of hyporesponsiveness?

Back 235

to insulin, diabetes mellitus type II

Front 236

what disease is a common example of hyperresponsiveness?

Back 236

denervation supersensitivity

Front 237

what are the cells in the anterior pituitary gland that synthesize and secrete human growth hormone?

Back 237

somatotrophs

Front 238

what hormone inhibits synthesis and secretion of growth hormone?

Back 238

somatostatin

Front 239

what are some things that stimulate growth hormone secretion?

Back 239

GHRH, ghrelin (hunger), protein deficiency, decrease in fatty acids or glucose, fasting, puberty, exercise, stage IV sleep, physiologic stress

Front 240

what are some things that inhibit growth hormone secretion?

Back 240

somatostatin, increasing blood glucose and fatty acids, administration of exogenous GH, obesity, senescence, somatomedins

Front 241

is GH secretion greater in males or females?

Back 241

females

Front 242

what hormone stimulates GH secretion with a peak just before ovulation?

Back 242

estradiol

Front 243

what hormone stimulates GH secretion in males?

Back 243

testosterone

Front 244

what are the three main effects of GH and somatomedins?

Back 244

(1) increased protein synthesis
(2) mobilization and utilization of fatty acids
(3) decrease utilization of glucose, elevating blood glucose

Front 245

excess GH can cause disturbances in the body that are similar to what disease?

Back 245

type II diabetes

Front 246

what three things do the growth promoting effects of hGH require?

Back 246

normal insulin levels, adequate diet of CHO and protein

Front 247

what hormone sensitizes the gonads to LH and FSH during puberty?

Back 247

growth hormone

Front 248

what hormone inhibits growth?

Back 248

cortisol

Front 249

what substance is the precursor for synthesis of all the adrenocortical hormones (corticoids)?

Back 249

cholesterol

Front 250

what two things stimulate the secretion of aldosterone?

Back 250

angiotensin II and elevated plasma K levels

Front 251

normal levels of cortisol affects the actions of many other hormones, and is thus said to have a __ effect on endocrine action

Back 251

permissive

Front 252

which hormone is life essential and plays an important role in the body's response to stress?

Back 252

cortisol

Front 253

secretion of a lot of this hormone can cause tanning of the skin

Back 253

ACTH

Front 254

70-80% of the circulating cortisol in the body travels bound to this corticosteroid binding protein

Back 254

transcortin

Front 255

15% of the circulating cortisol is bound to plasma __

Back 255

albumin

Front 256

only __-__ percent of cortisol is "free" in the blood

Back 256

5-10

Front 257

plasma cortisol is in equilibrium with a biologically inactive analog called __

Back 257

cortisone

Front 258

what type of muscle has a high density of glucocorticoid receptors?

Back 258

skeletal

Front 259

cortisol is __ to insulin actions (therefore, it can produce insulin resistance)

Back 259

antagonistic

Front 260

cortisol exerts a__ role on the action of hormones responsible for maintaining vascular responsiveness (critical in maintaining normal blood pressure)

Back 260

permissive

Front 261

what is the functional unit of the thyroid gland?

Back 261

follicle

Front 262

what situation would lead to less reverse T3, and an increase in T3 and T4 to burn energy? (overfeeding or underfeeding)

Back 262

overfeeding

Front 263

what situation would lead to more reverse T3 and a decrease in T3 and T4 to conserve fuel and decrease the basal metabolic rate?

Back 263

underfeeding

Front 264

if you increase T3 and T4, does TSH increase or decrease?

Back 264

decrease

Front 265

if there is too much TSH, and the follicle cells are overstimulated, what is produced?

Back 265

a goiter

Front 266

inside the cell, thyroid hormone stimulates the synthesis of what types of proteins?

Back 266

Na/K ATPase
Mitochondrial enzymes
Other enzymes that affect metabolism

Front 267

what are the four major effects of thyroid hormone on the body?

Back 267

(1) growth and development of the fetal brain
(2) growth and development of the child
(3) basal metabolic rate
(4) potentiates the effectiveness of epi and norepi

Front 268

what is the most common cause of hypothyroidism in the US?

Back 268

the autoimmune, acquired destruction of the thyroid gland by circulating antibodies

Front 269

what is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism in the US?

Back 269

autoimmune destruction of the thyroid gland by circulating antibodies known as thyroid stimulating antibodies (called grave's disease, mimics TSH and stimulates thyroid)

Front 270

this is the body's recognition and destruction of cancerous cells

Back 270

immune surveillance

Front 271

this is formed when the microbe is engulfed by the phagocyte

Back 271

phagosome

Front 272

what are the 5 basic steps of inflammation?

Back 272

(1) release of histamine/other vasoactive subsances
(2) vasodilation
(3) chemotaxis
(4) neutrophils
(5) macrophages

Front 273

the activation of this cascade produces substances that act as vasodilators, induce pain, cause smooth muscle contraction, increase vascular permeability

Back 273

kinin cascade (primary-bradykinin)

Front 274

what drug blocks the production of cytokines produced by the CD4 cells?

Back 274

cyclosporin

Front 275

What are the three phases of the immune response?

Back 275

(1) antigen recognition
(2) activation phase (clonal expansion)
(3) effector (kill) phase

Front 276

what class of MHC is found on all the cells in the body except the erythrocytes?

Back 276

MHC I

Front 277

what MHC complex is found primarily on macrophages and some B lymphocytes?

Back 277

MHC II

Front 278

what portion of an antibody binds the antigens?

Back 278

variable

Front 279

what portion of the antibody binds the complement protein?

Back 279

constant

Front 280

what antibody found in the mucosal membranes is responsible for neutralizing foreign subsances?

Back 280

IgA

Front 281

what cells are important in the elimination of bacteria?

Back 281

CD4 and B cells

Front 282

what cells are important in the elimination of viruses?

Back 282

CD4 and CD8 cells

Front 283

the secretion of what substances nonspecifically inhibits viral replication?

Back 283

interferons