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57 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back

What are three common ways to navigate?

Position may be determined by:




a. pilotage (reference to visual landmarks)




b. dead reckoning (by computing direction and distance from a known position)




c. radio navigation (by use of radio aids)

What type of aeronautical charts are available for use in VFR navigation?

a. Sectional Charts: designed for visual navigation of slow to medium speed aircraft. One inch equal 6.86 nautical miles. They are revised semiannually, except most Alaskan charts which are revised annually




b. VFR Terminal Area Charts: depict Class B airspace. More detail because the scale is larger, one inch equals 3.43 nautical miles. Charts are revised semiannually except in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands




c. World Aeronautical Charts: Cover land areas for navigation by moderate speed aircraft operating at high altitudes. Because of the smaller scale, WACs do no show as much detail and are not recommended for pilots of low speed, low altitude aircraft. One inch equals 13.7 nautical miles. WACS are revised annually except for a few in Alaska and the Caribbean, which are revised biennially




d. VFR Flyway Planning Charts: This chart is printed on the reverse side of selected TAC charts. The coverage is the same as the associated TAC. They depict flight paths and altitudes recommended for use to bypass high traffic areas.

What is an "isogonic line"?

Broken magenta lines, isogonic lines connect points of equal magnetic variation. They show the amount and direction of magnetic variation, which from time to time may vary

What is "magnetic variation"?

Variation is the angle between true north and magnetic north. It is expressed as east variation or west variation depending upon whether magnetic north (MN) is to the east or west of true north (TN) respectively

How do you convert a true direction to a magnetic direction?

To convert true course or heading to magnetic course or heading, note the variation shown by the nearest isogonic line. If the variation is west, add; if east, subtract

What are lines of latitude and longitude?

Circles parallel to the equator (lines running east and west), parallels of latitude, enable us to measure distance in degrees latitude north or south of the equator. Meridians of longitude are drawn from the North pole to the South Pole and are at right angles to the equator. The "Prime Meridian," which passes through Greenwich, England, is used as the zero line from which measurements are made in degrees east and west to 180°. The 48 conterminous states of the United States lie between 25 degrees and 49 degrees north latitude and between 67 degrees and 125 degrees west longitude

What is "magnetic deviation"?

Because of the magnetic influences within the airplane itself, the compass needle is frequently deflected from its normal reading. This deflection is called deviation. Deviation is different for each airplane and also varies for different headings of the same airplane. The deviation value may be found on a deviation card located in the airplane

Name several types of radio aids to air navigation.

a. NBD (nondirectional radio beacon)


b. VOR (Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range)


c. VORTAC (VHF Omnidirectional Range/Tactical Air Navigation)


d. DME (Distance Measuring Equipment)


e. RNAV (Area Navigation) includes INS, LORAN, VOR/DME-referenced and GPS

What is "VOR" or "VORTAC"?

VORS are VHF radio stations that project radials in all directions (360°) from the station. Each of these radials is denoted by its outbound magnetic direction. Almost all VOR stations will also be VORTACS, which provides the standard bearing information of a VOR plus distance information to pilots of airplanes which also have distance measuring equipment (DME)

Within what frequency range do VORs operate?

Transmitting frequencies of omnirange stations are in the VHF band between 108 and 117.95

What is a VOR "radial"?

a "radial" is defined as a line of magnetic bearing extending from an omnidirectional range (VOR). A VOR projects 360 radials from the station, identified by their direction from the station.

How are VOR NAVAIDS classified?

Terminal, Low, High

What reception distances can be expected from the various class VORs?

Class Distance/Altitudes Miles


T 12,000 and below 25


L Below 18,000 40


H Below 18,000 40


H 14,500-17,900 100


H 18,000-FL450 130


H Above FL450 100

What limitations apply to VOR reception distances?

VORs are subject to line-of-sight restrictions, and the range varies proportionally to the altitude of the receiving equipment

What are the different methods for checking the accuracy of VOR receiver equipment?

a. VOT check: plus or minus 4°


b. Ground checkpoint: plus or minus 4°


c. Airborne checkpoint: plus or minus 6°


d. Dual VOR check: 4° between each other


e. Selected radial over a known ground point: plus or minus 6°



What is an NDB?

a nondirectional beacon; a low-to medium-frequency radio beacon transmits nondirectional signals whereby the pilot of an aircraft properly equipped can determine bearings and "home" or "track" to the station

Within what frequency range do NDBs operate?

These facilities normally operate in the frequency band of 190 to 535 kHz and transmit a continuous carrier with either 00 or 1020 Hz modulation. All radio beacons, except compass locators, transmit a continuous three-letter identification code

What is "ADF"?

Automatic Direction Finder-many general aviation-type airplanes are equipped with automatic direction finder (ADF) radio receiving equipment which operate in the low to medium frequency bands. To navigate using the ADF, the pilot tunes the receiving equipment to a ground station known as a Non-Directional Beacon (NDB). The most common use of ADF is that of "homing" by flying the needle to the station

What are some of the advantages/disadvantages when using ADF for navigation?

Advantages: low cost of equipment and usually very low maintenance; Low or medium frequencies are not affected by line-of-sight. The signals follow the curvature of the earth; therefore, if the aircraft is within range of the station, the signals can be received regardless of altitude




Disadvantages: Low frequency signals are very susceptible to electrical disturbances, such as lightning, precipitation static, etc. These disturbances create excessive static, needle deviations, and signal fades. Particularly at night, there may be interference from distant stations

What are the normal usable service ranges for the various class NDBs?

Compass locators: under 25 watts, 15 NM




MH: under 50 watts, 25 NM




H: 50 to 1999 watts, 50 NM (although some may be less)




HH: 2000 or more watts, 75 NM

What is "DME"?

Distance Measuring Equipment (airborne and ground): used to measure in NM the slant range distance of an aircraft from the DME navigational aid. Aircraft equipped with DME are provided with distance and ground speed information when receiving a VORTAC or TACAN facility. DME operates on frequencies in the UHF spectrum between 960 MHz and 1215 MHz

Give a brief explanation of GPS?

Global Positioning System is a satellite-based radio navigation system that broadcasts a signal used by receivers to determine a precise position anywhere in the world. The receiver tracks multiple satellites and determines a pseudo-range measurement that is then used to determine the user's location

What are the three functional elements of GPS?

Space element: consists of 30 satellites




Control element: consists of a network of ground-based GPS monitoring and control stations that ensure the accuracy of satellite positions and their clocks




User element: consists of antennas and receiver-processors onboard aircraft that provide positioning, velocity, and precise timing to the user

What is the purpose of RAIM?

Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) is a self-monitoring function performed by a GPS receiver to ensure that adequate GPS signals are being received from the satellites at all times. The GPS will alert the pilot whenever the integrity monitoring determines that the GPS signals do not meet the criteria for safe navigational use

Where can a pilot obtain RAIM availability information?

GPS RAIM availability information can be obtained from an AFSS during preflight briefings. FSS briefers will provide RIAM information for a period of 1 hour before to 1 hour after the ETA unless a specific time frame is requested by the pilot

Before conducting a flight using GPS equipment for navigation, what basic preflight checks should be made?

a. verify that GPS equipment is properly installed and certified for the planned operation




b. verify that the database is current and has not expired




c. review GPS NOTAM/RAIM information related to the planned route of flight

How can a pilot determine what type of operation a GPS receiver is approved for?

The pilot should reference the POH/AFM and supplements to determine the limitations and operating procedures for the particular GPS equipment installed. Most systems require that the avionics operations manual/handbook be on board as a limitation of use

During a preflight briefing, will the FSS briefer automatically provide a pilot with GPS NOTAMS?

No, you must specifically request GPS/WAAS NOTAMS

How many satellites does a GPS receiver require to computer its position?

3 satellites: yields latitude and longitude position only (2D)




4 satellites: yields latitude, longitude, and altitude (3D)




5 satellites: 3D and RAIM




6 satellites: 3D and RAIM (isolates corrupt signal and removes from navigation solution)

What is WAAS?

Wide area augmentation system (WAAS) is a ground and satellite integrated navigational error correction system that provides accuracy enhancements to signals received from the GPS. WAAS provides extremely accurate lateral and vertical navigation signals to aircraft equipped with GPS/WAAS enabled certified (TSO C-146) equipment

What limitations should you be aware of when using a panel-mount VFR GPS or a hand-held VFR GPS system for navigation?

a. RAIM capability: Many VFR GPS receivers and all hand-held units have no RAIM alerting capability. Loss of the required number of satellites in view, or the detection of a position error, cannot be displayed to the pilot by such receivers




b. Database currency: In many receivers, an updatable database is used for navigation fixes, airports, and instrument procedures. These databases must be maintained to the current update for IFR operation, but no such requirement exists for VFR use




c. Antenna location: In many VFR installations of GPS receivers, antenna location is more a matter of convenience than performance. Handheld GPS receiver antenna location is limited to the cockpit or cabin only and is rarely optimized to provide a clear view of available satellites. Loss of signal, coupled with a lack of RAIM capability, could present erroneous position and navigation information with no warning to the pilot

Define the term "VFR Waypoint".

VFR Waypoints provide pilots with a supplementary tool to assist with position awareness while navigation visually in aircraft equipped with area navigation receivers (such as GPS). They provide navigational aids for pilots unfamiliar with an area, waypoint definition of existing reporting points, enhanced navigation in and around Class B and Class C airspace, and around special use airspace. VFR waypoint names consist of five-letter identifier beginning with "VP" and are retrievable from navigation databases; they should be used only when operating under VFR conditions

What actions should you take if you become disoriented or lost on a cross-county flight?

Condition 1: fuel and good weather


-fly a heading you think to be correct or circle


-use VORs


-use knowledge of last known position, elapsed time, approximate wind direction and ground speed, to establish how far you may have traveled since your last checkpoint


-use distance as a radius and draw a semicircle ahead of your last known point


-if still unsure, use pilotage and look for something big




Condition 2: no fuel and bad weather


-get on the ground

If it becomes apparent that you cannot locate your position, what action is recommended?

The 4 C's:




Climb: the higher altitude allows better communication capability as well as better visual range for identification of landmarks




Communicate: use the system. Use 121.5 MHz if no other frequency produces results. It is guarded by FSS's, control towers, military towers, approach control facilities, and Air Route Traffic Control Centers




Confess: Once communications are established, let them know your problem




Comply: follow instructions



What is "DF guidance"?

DF guidance is given to aircraft in distress or to other aircraft that request the service. Headings are provided to the aircraft by facilities equipped with direction finding equipment. Following these headings will lead the aircraft to a predetermined point such as the DF station or an airport. DF guidance for practice is provided when workload permits

What is the most common type of communication radio equipment installed in general aviation aircraft? How many channels are available?

In general aviation, the most common types of radios are VHF. A VHF radio operates on frequencies between 118.0 and 136.975 MHz and is classified as 720 or 760 depending on the number of channels it can accommodate. The 720 and 760 uses .025 spacing with the 720 having a frequency range up to 135.975 and the 760 going up to 136.975

What is the universal VHF "Emergency" frequency?

121.5 MHz; this frequency is guarded by military towers, most civil towers, FSS's and radar facilities

What frequencies are used for ground control?

The majority of ground control frequencies are 121.6 and 121.9 MHz

What is a "CTAF"?

a CTAF (Common Traffic Advisory Frequency) is a frequency designated for the purpose of carrying out airport advisory practices while operating to or from an airport without an operating control tower. The CTAF may be a UNICOM, MULTICOM, FSS or TOWER frequency and is identified in appropriate aeronautical publications

What is "UNICOME" and what frequencies are designated for its use?

UNICOM is a nongovernment communication facility which may provide airport information at certain airports. Airports other than those with a control tower/FSS on airport will normally use 122.700, 122.725, 122.800, 122.975, 123.00, 123.050, and 123.075 MHz. Airports with a control tower or an FSS on airport will normally use 122.950 MHz.

What does "ATIS" mean?

Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) is the contiguous broadcast of recorded noncontrol information in selected high-activity terminal areas. Its purpose is to improve controller effectiveness and to relieve frequency congestion by automating the repetitive transmission of essential but routine information

If operating into an airport without an operating control tower, FSS or UNICOM, what procedure should be followed?

use MULTICOM frequency 122.9 for self-announce procedures. MULTICOM is a mobile service not open to public use, used to provide communications essential to conduct the activities being performed by or directed from private aircraft

What frequencies are monitored by most FSS's other than 121.5?

FSS's and supplemental weather service locations are allocated frequencies for different functions; for example 122.0 is assigned to EFAS. FSS provide Local Airport Advisory on 123.6. 122.2 is assigned to the majority of FSS as a common enroute simplex frequency

What is an RCO?

Remote communications outlet, i an unmanned communications facility remotely controlled by ATC personnel, established for the purpose of providing ground-to-ground communications between ATC and pilots located at satellite airports. ATC may use the RCO to deliver en route clearances and departure authorizations and to acknowledge IFR cancellations or departure/landing times. As a secondary function, RCOs may be used for advisory purpose whenever the aircraft is below the coverage of the primary air/ground frequency

How can a pilot determine what frequency is appropriate for activation his/her VFR flight plan once airborne?

Two ways:




a. ask the FSS briefer during the preflight weather briefing




b. Consult the communications section under flight service for the airport of departure in the AFD

What is the meaning of a heavy-lined blue box surrounding a NAVAID frequency?

indicates FSS frequencies 121.5, 122.2, 243.0, and 255.4 are available

Why would a frequency be printed on top of a heavy-lined box?

usually means this frequency is available in addition to standard FSS frequencies

What is the meaning of a thin-lined blue box surrounding a NAVAID frequency?

a plain box without frequencies on top indicates that there are no standard FSS frequencies available. These NAVAIDS will have a "no voice" symbol (underline under frequency)

Why would a frequency be printed on top of a thin-lined blue box?

These frequencies are the best frequencies to use in the immediate vicinity of the NAVAID site, and will ensure reception by the controlling FSS at low altitudes without terrain interference. They will normally be followed by an "R" which indicates that the FSS can receive only on that frequency (you transmit on that frequency). The pilot will listen for a response over the NAVAID frequency

How can a pilot determine the availability of HIWAS when looking at a VFR sectional chart?

NAVAIDS that have HIWAS capability are depicted on sectional charts with an "H" in the upper right corner of the identification box

What meaning does the letter "T" in a solid blue circle appearing in the top right corner of a NAVAID frequency box have?

(Alaska only) A Transcribed Weather Broadcast is available. A TWEB is a continuous recording of meteorological and and aeronautical information that is broadcast on L/MF and VOR facilities for pilots

An inflight emergency requires immediate action by the pilot, what authority and responsibility does he/she have?

a. the PIC is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of that aircraft




b. in an inflight emergency requiring immediate action, the PIC may deviate from any rule in Part 91 to the extent required to meet that emergency




c. each PIC who deviates from a Part 91 rule shall, upon request from the Administrator, send a written report of that deviation to the Administrator

What restrictions apply to pilots concerning the use of drugs and alcohol?

No person may act or attempt to act as a crewmember of a civil aircraft




a. within 8 hours after the consumption of any alcoholic beverage




b. while under the influence of alcohol




c. while using any drugs that affects the person's faculties in any way contrary to safety or




d. while having an alcohol concentration of .04 percent or more in a blood or breath specimen

Is it permissible for a pilot to allow a person who is obvious under the influence of intoxicating liquors or drugs to be carried aboard an aircraft?

No, except in an emergency or a medical patient under proper care

May portable electronic devices be operated onboard an aircraft?

Aircraft operated by a holder of an air carrier operating certificate or an aircraft operating under IFR may not allow operation of electronic devices onboard their aircraft. Exceptions are portable voice recorders, hearing aids, heart pacemakers, electronic shavers, or any other device that the operator of the aircraft has determined will not cause interference with the navigation or communication system of the aircraft on which it is to be used

Under what conditions may objects be dropped from an aircraft?

If reasonable precautions are taken to avoid injury or damage to persons or property

Concerning a flight in the local area, is any preflight action required, and if so, what must it consist of?

Yes, pilots must familiarize themselves with all available information concerning the flight, including runway lengths at airports of intended use, and takeoff and landing distance data under existing conditions