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124 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
What are Kohlberg's Stages?
-Pre-Conventional
-Conventional
-Post-Conventional or principled
In which of Kohlberg's stages does a child base his.her moral judgments on the desire to avoid being punished?
Pre-Conventional
In which of Kohlberg's stages does a child, in time, does the child tend to base his or her moral judgments on the desire to obtain rewards?
Pre-Conventional
In which of Kohlberg's stages does a child's world expand to include such factors as liking or disliking, approving or disapproving?
Conventional
In which of Kohlberg's stages is the childs view now based on what others think of him/her, "right" behaviors defined in terms of what pleases or helps others?
Conventional
What are the three building blocks from the deviance- crime continuum?
1. Deviance
2. Crime
3. Social Control
What is defined as a violation of cultural, social, and political norms?
Deviance
What is defined as a violation of norms, formally enacted into the criminal la and/or penal code of a jurisdiction, state, or governing body?
Crime
What are the four answers/opinions to the question "What is Crime?"
1. Public Opinion
2. Natural Law
3. Social constructionist
4. Legal
a general public view that focuses on that type of street crime we fefer to as "street-crime" (Examples: murder, rape, robbery)
Public Opinion
In which of Kohlberg's stages, in mid adolescence, focus becomes centered on social virtues?
Conventional
In which of Kohlberg's stages, in time, obedience to those in authority (parents, teachers) is a crucial step?
Conventional
In which of Kohlberg's stages does a person now judge righness and wrongness of actions and behaviors on the basis of ethical principles or or values?
Post-conventional or pricipled
Name 3 tests for cognitive recognition
1. Rapid recall
2. Verbal fluency
3. Categorizing acuity
In what theory, unlike psychoanalytic and psychiatric explanations, does not focus on biological drives, child-parent relationships or unconscious thoughts and drives but rather assumes all human behavior, including crime is learned?
Learning theory
What theory sees criminal behavior as a learned response to social conditions, life experiences and situation induced priorities?
learning theory
Who thought that person was not born with the ability to behave violently?
Albert Bandura
Who thought that people learn aggressiveness through life experience?
Albert Bandura
Who thought that child learns violent or aggressive behavior as they observe role models, imitate what they see and act out what they observe?
Albert Bandura
Who believed that criminal behavior can be modified or changed by taking away or eliminating the reward or value associated with behavior?
Albert Bandura
Who believed that people learn moral preferences in encounters with society?
Clifford Eysenck
Who believed that over time, a person consistently punished for inappropriate behavior will develop an unpleasant response whenever they consider committing that behavior?
Clifford Eysenck
Who created the psychoanalytic theory?
Sigmund Freud
What said that all people have natural drives/urges/desires, some repressed in the unconscious mind?
psychoanalytic theory
What said that some wants are expressed in criminal tendencies, inner psychic controls, learned in early childhood via socialization, typically curb these tendencies?
Psychoanalytic theory
This position focuses on how a universal body of rules and regulations help determine the beginning and end of criminal acts. (Examples: code of Islam, Code of Hammurabi, 10 Commandments)
Natural Law
This position on crime where in crime is constructed by society. Crime does not exist without an audience response and awareness.
Social Constructionist
This position on crime is illustrated in our law, codes, and statutes.
Legal
According to Tappan, what are the two general features of crime?
Actus Reus: the act itself

Mens Rea: the actor's/persons state of mind, therein intent/motive
What is an accepted general definition of crime according to Tappan?
"An intentional act of omission in violation of the criminal law..
Committed without justification of defense and..
Sanctioned by the state as a felony or misdemeanor"
Why is Tappan's definition of crime said to be an improvement over the other alternatives?
More rational approach
Insures greater predictability
Achieves better standardization
Is more certain
Has greater consistency
A situational defense in which the individual commits an illegal act because the defendant or a third party is being unlawfully threatened with some degree of harm
Duress
A situational defense in which the defendant maintains that law enforcement personnel induced him/her to commit an act by using trickery, persuasion, or fraud
Entrapment
A situational defense in which the defendant claims they had to break the law to avoid a greater evil- for example, to avoid the harm of an approaching natural disaster.
Necessity
A situational defense in which the the person that committed the act/behavior was emotionally enraged by the actions of another.
Provocation
This position focuses on how a universal body of rules and regulations help determine the beginning and end of criminal acts. (Examples: code of Islam, Code of Hammurabi, 10 Commandments)
Natural Law
This position on crime where in crime is constructed by society. Crime does not exist without an audience response and awareness.
Social Constructionist
This position on crime is illustrated in our law, codes, and statutes.
Legal
According to Tappan, what are the two general features of crime?
Actus Reus: the act itself

Mens Rea: the actor's/persons state of mind, therein intent/motive
What is an accepted general definition of crime according to Tappan?
"An intentional act of omission in violation of the criminal law..
Committed without justification of defense and..
Sanctioned by the state as a felony or misdemeanor"
Why is Tappan's definition of crime said to be an improvement over the other alternatives?
More rational approach
Insures greater predictability
Achieves better standardization
Is more certain
Has greater consistency
A situational defense in which the individual commits an illegal act because the defendant or a third party is being unlawfully threatened with some degree of harm
Duress
A situational defense in which the defendant maintains that law enforcement personnel induced him/her to commit an act by using trickery, persuasion, or fraud
Entrapment
A situational defense in which the defendant claims they had to break the law to avoid a greater evil- for example, to avoid the harm of an approaching natural disaster.
Necessity
A situational defense in which the the person that committed the act/behavior was emotionally enraged by the actions of another.
Provocation
What said that faulty identification by child with parents is the most common contributor to criminal behavior?
psychoanalytic theory
What said that improperly socialized child is at high risk to develop personality disturbances?
psychoanalytic theory
What said that personality disturbances, when directed outward, can result in crime?
psychoanalytic theory
What said that criminal behavior is caused by improper formation of three components of the personality, ID, EGO, SUPEREGO?
psychoanalytic theory
What said that criminal behavior influenced by how people cognitively organize and process their thoughts, including ideas about morality, ethical behavior, and the law?
cognitive theory
Whats critical process is moral reasoning?
Cognitive theory
Whats key issue is intellectual readiness, developmentally speaking, can the person use critical reasoning?
Cognitive theory
Who was a theorist for cognitive theory?
Lawrence Kohlberg
What is Kohlberg's theory of moral development?
-Proposes the importance of series of stages linked to child development.
-Moral judgments and ethical reasoning become more refined and definitive as stages progress.
-Person who obeys the law only to avoid being punished... or...obeys only because he/she is preoccupied by self0interest is more likely to commit crime.
-Person who sees the law or benefiting society and who sympathizes with other's rights... is less inclined to submit to criminal temptations
Name 2 criticisms of early biogenic influenced research
Unsound methodology
-Used no random sampling
-Biased selection of study experiences

lacked control/comparison groups
-Used a confined/incarcerated population
-did not include general population
A situational defense where the harm done occurred after the injured party gave permission for act in question.
Consent
Any individual person, group, or systematic plan that attempts to regulate curtail or restrain normal human behavior from taking place
Social Control
What are the two types of social control?
Formal
Informal
Describe formal social control
Has legal force
Occurs by consensus
Orginates in/from the state or collective body
Has a specific focus on target
Is semi-bureaucratic; at minimum
Describe informal social control
Legal impact is minimal
Relies on individual choice and decisions
Triggered by personal involvement
Originates from socializations process
Loosely connected by design
What are the four competing perspectives on crime?
1.Consensus
2.Conflict
3.Interactionist
4.Ceremonial/Negotiated
Describe the Consensus perspective on crime
Law defines crime
General agreement on what acts/behaviors are unlawful
Law applies equally to all citizens
Crime as a constant, lacks variation
Crime serves a purpose for society
Describe the Conflict perspective on crime
Law is a tool used by ruling class to control the underclass of society
Crime is politically and economically defined
Crime is not a constant, but varies from society to society and place to place
"Real Crimes" (substandard housing) are routinely not outlawed
Describe the Interactionist perscpective on crime
Crime is socially created
Moral entrepreneurs (MADD) help defend crime
Crime is dependent on the situation at hand
Crime is determined by the audience reaction
Crimes are illegal because society defines them as such
Crime has no meaning until people react to it
Describe the Ceremonial/Negotiated perspective on crime
Developed by John Hagan
Competing views on crime do not matter, they are of no consequence
What is or isnt a crime, is predetermined
What matters is decision-making by legal actors (police, judges, prosecutors)
Crime is negotiated, often a biased outcome
Plea bargain is a central process
What said that origins/etiology of crime are found in a persons' (mind)?
psycho-genic view
Whats key is determining what is considered proper psychological development?
psycho-genic view
What is a distressed mental state and/or an impaired psyche--- prime indicators of crime proneness?
Psycho-genic view
What are three lines of inquiry for the psychogenic view?
1. Psychiatric perspective
2. Psychotic-disorders approaches
3. Psychological view
What is the psychiatric perspective?
-Criminality is the result of mental illness or brain disorders.
-Brain processes are shaped by early experiences
-Genetics, chemicals, and the environment can also affect normal brain processes.
-Abnormalities in brain functioning can result (in-likely causes) distorted perceptions and abnormal behaviors.
What is the psychotic disorders approach?
-disorders may be chemical, genetic, and environmentally based.
-Disorders can render the person unable to distinguish between reality and internally generated delusions or hallucinations.
-Rational thinking is impaired, diminished, delayed, or virtually non-existent.
What is the psychological view?
-individuals differ in their mental and psychic states.
-Proper mental and sexual development follows a series of common (developmental stages)
-Abnormal mental/sexual development can result in personality disorders and psychological disturbances
-Improper psychological functioning and personality traits are linked to why some people are more predisposed to commit crime/deviance than others.
What is the bio-social theory?
Thesis: crime is a product if the interaction of two conditions:
1. Biological traits of the person..and..
2. Social conditions he/she experiences
-No two people are the same
-behavior is the result of human genetics and the social, emotional, and physical environment.
What are the three lines of inquiry for the bio-social theory?
1. neurological dysfunction
2. biochemical factors
3. genetic influences
What is neurological dysfunction?
Premise: imbalances in neurological system and brain chemistry linked to crime/criminality.
-abnormalities/difficulties in neurons, or brain development are linked to crime.
What are biochemical factors?
-Body chemistry ---> behavior.personality
-Diet/nutrition----> aggression/depression
What are genetic influences in the bio-social theory?
Premise: genes--> both dominant and recessive, can "predispose: some to engage in violence, aggression, and anti-social behavior.
-criminality is possibly inherited or transferred from generation to the next.
Name 2 grand traditions of the biological views
1. biogenic
2. biosocial
What is the biogenic view?
Thesis: deviance and crime are pre-determined events.
Crime is NOT a product of free will.
Decision to commit crime is a product of uncontrollable mental and physical conditions
no rational decision occurs on part of actor or offender.
Name the 5 biogenic view
1. phrenology and craniology
2. lombroso's atavist
3. criminal body types
4. genetic influences
5. other biological factors
What is Phrenology and craniology?
-Shape and contours (rifts and valleys) of the skull can be used to classify/predict behavior (including crime)
-Craniology-> the development of cranial maps of the skull.
-Gall: could 'read' person's skull to determine crime proneness.
What is Lombroso's Atavist?
-Criminals are biologically inferior or different compared to non-criminals.
-Atavist: the 'born' criminal who could be recognized through distinct features and biological (physical) traits.
-Introduces notion of the 'stigmata' -- and identifying (physical) 'mark' said to be linked to crime proneness.
What is Crime and body type?
-Predisposition: to crime related to person's body-type or physical stature.
-William Shelton (1944) and Eleanor Glueck (1940)
Common body types:
1. Endomorph: soft and round
2. Ectomorph: tall and thin
3. Mesomorph: muscular and athletic ******
What are genetic influences of biogenic influences?
-Shockley (1969; Hundelang and Hirschi (1969)
-Crime is transmitted or inherited though 'bad' genes.
-Claims the importance of 'nature over nurture.'
-Use of twin an adoption studies to 'support' importance of genetic influences.
What is positivism?
-causes of behavior can be measured and observed.
-Seeks to objectivify, record and quantify the correlates and/or causes of behavior.
-calls for use of scientific principles to study behavior.
What is justice? Give three responses from the competitive models of justice.
1. Equality..or..equity
2. Efficiency/speed..or fair/even
3.Case by case review..or..informal screening
What are the three traditional delivery models?
1. Crime Control
2. Due Process
3. Victims' Rights
Explain the Crime Control Model
-Deterrence and Incapacitation-repression of criminal conduct is by far the most important fucntion
-Resembles an assembly line
-Focus is on the efficiency of the system at a premium
-Emphasis is on the presumption of guilt & the importance of early adminstrative fact-finding
Explain the Due Process Model
-Social order = social justice
-Resmbles an obstacle course
-Emphasis on the presumption of innocence
-Rejects an informal fact-finding and insists on formal adjudicative.
-Stresses equality
Explain the Victims' Rights Model
-Restitution-individual and collective
-Victim involvement
-Must determine the cost of crime
-Emphasis: presumption of harm is more important than innocence or guilt
-Balanced compensation or payback should be realized by victim(s)
List the 6 questions that guide a theoretical analysis of crime?
1. Is the unit of analysis, at the macro or micro levels?
2. What kind of condition or event is under analysis?
3. How is society organized?
4. Is society fluid or static?
5. Is change imposed on the public or generated by majority?
6. Are people seen as active or passive agents?
What is the difference between Micro v. Macro?
Micro: Individual or small groups
Macro: Society or larger
What is the difference between an overt or covert behavior?
Overt: an objective act or behavior
Covert: a subjective act or behavior
Name and describe the two approaches to theory devlopment.
Common Approach: A set of interrelated statements, about the nature and extent of crime, which much be testable, and measurable.

Analytical Approach: Focuses on the roles of the individual and society.
What makes a "good" theory?
A good theory allows us to:
1. Describe..the conditions under which crime is most likely to occur.
2. Explain..the relationship between events/conditions said to be correlated with or to cause crime.
3. Predict..when, where, and at what time, crime has the greatest chance to occur.
What is determinism?
-causes of behavior are pre-determined
-focus on indivdual [biogenic] and/or enviornmental [bio-social] factors.
-Crime is not a result of choice or free will; offender makes no rational decision.
What is incapacitation?
-Crime can be reduced by:
1. Increasing the number of persons behind bars
2. Adding more time to the length of a persons stay in jail or prison
-implies systematic removal of a probable, or not yet confirmed, threat from society.
What is deterrence?
Choice to commit controlled and prevented by:
-Threat ( real/percieved) of punishment.
-Actual application or use of sanctions
TWO FORMS: general, specific
Name 2 types of deterrence
-General: targets population at large
-Specific: targets and individual offender.
What is retribution?
-act of crime is a choice freely made
-to control crime, must ensure punishment fits amount of harm done to the victim
-Reaction to crime often act of simple revenge or retaliation
-punish for what one did (act) not what one might do (future acts).
-emphasis is on proportional justice.
Name three policy implications for choice theory
1. retribution
2. incapacitation
3. deterrence
What is the rational choice theory?
-people have free will to choose a course of action
-decisions are utilitartian, rewards outweigh costs
-challenges view that sees behavior as pre-determined by the effects of the social or physical environment.
-Rejects the idea that those who commit crime are 'sick, ill or in need of treatment.'
What view is of labor, work, and fair competition and believes that crime is a by-product of free market system?
Marxism
What view has assumptions that humans are natural workers and the most basic human activity is laboring to meet ones survival needs?
Marxism
What view is the focus on the law?
Marxism
What view has core concepts means of production, mode of production, economy, and social class?
Marxism
What views major themes are laws and the legal system inherently unequal society reflect that inequality and function to preserve it?
Marxism
What views conflict view is a by-product of social inequality where the high-powered are controlling the low-powered?
Marxism
What view focuses on bodily constitutions?
Positivism
What view encourages society to look at cause of crime from real-world events?
Positivism
What view believes that causes of human behavior can be measured and observed?
positivism
What no longer assumed people have free will to choose their behavior?
positivism
What view seeks to objectify, record, and quantify the correlates and/or causes of behavior?
positivism
What view calls for the use of scientific principles to study behavior, including crime?
positivism
What view sees crime as a predetermined outcome?
positivism
What view has the assumption that human behavior is more or less determined by internal factors or external environmental factors?
positivism
What view has the theme that crime is not a product of free will, but rather determined by factors within the individual or by factors in his/her environment?
positivism
For the positivist, is the offender curable?
yes
When is a theory adequate? Explain the two levels of adequacy.
1. Logical Adequacy: Requires a theory to maintain internal consistency between and among its interrelated statements (no contradiction)
2. Empirical Adequacy:Requires that predictions be consistent with objective facts in the real world. Must be testable, if not easily replicated.
What makes a theory ideal?
-A theory should include the principle of causality.
-It should propose a "cause-effect" relationship, rather than a simple correlation.
What theoretical paradigm views temptation or being possessed by demons, as the root source of criminal and deviant behavior?
Spiritualism
Which theoretical paradigm views the criminal as a calculator and coined the term "Hedonistic Calculus"?
Classical School of Criminology
Which theoretical paradigm says that in order to control behavior via punishments, the cost of committing the crime must outweigh the benefits?
Classical School of Criminology
According to the Classical School of Criminology, to deter crime, punishment must be _____, ______, and _____
severe
swift
certain