Counseling Research Midterm

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A general question that guides the direction of the research

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•Research question

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Educated guess

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Hypothesis

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A value or characteristic that is observed/measured or manipulated

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Variable

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techniques employed for data examination.

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Research Design

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collect numerical data

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Quantitative design

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collect data in the form of narrative answers

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Qualitative design

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combine both quantitative and qualitative research methods

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mixed methods design

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attempts to find causality

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Experimental Research

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sets out to find the presence of a particular phenomenon

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Descriptive Research

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looks for relationships between existing variables.

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Relational or Correlational Research

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a variable that is manipulated

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Independant Variable

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the variable being studied

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Dependant Variable

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a subset of the target population

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Sample

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the extent to which the results of a measurement

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Validity

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results of a measurement or procedure are consistent f

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Reliability

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represent the population being studied.

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Generalizability

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very person has an equal and independent opportunity to participate in the research

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Random Sampling

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Involves listing potential participants and choosing a specified number (like every 5th name)

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Systemic Sampling

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Used to ensure that identified subgroups are represented in the sample.

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Stratified Sampling

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made up of the members of the larger population that are most accessible to the researcher

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Opportunity Sampling

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Eye color, native language, birthplac

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Constant

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A person’s age, weight, talkativeness, mood,

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Variable

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The specific population to be represented is called

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the target population or the theoretical population.

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For experimental and causal-comparative studies a minimum of 30 participants per group is recommended although tightly controlled groups may use as few as 15 subjects.

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Sample Size

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defined as the strength or magnitude of an association that can be calculated using various statistical formulas.

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Effect Size

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The mechanism (tool) used to collect data is called

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an instrument.

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The process of data collection from instrument selection to instrument administration is called

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instrumentation

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•The inability to identify and gain access to parts of an identified population.

•Under-representing or over-representing certain members of the population.

•Convenience sampling and volunteerism are common sources of sample bias.

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Sampling Bias

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•Hawthorne Effect: The notion that participants in an experimental group are motivated to perform better when they know they are being studied for research.

•John Henry Effect: The phenomenon that participants in a control group compete to outperform participants in the experimental group

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Participant Bias

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occur(s) when a researcher unintentionally influences participant behavior, ratings, or study outcomes.

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Experimenter bias

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refers to the tendency to allow one trait (often irrelevant traits such as attractiveness) of an individual to influence other traits are viewed. Especially important when experimenter is making several observations/ratings of participant.

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Halo Effect

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The most basic form of statistics that describe and summarize observations

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Descriptive Statistics

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in name only; no inherent quantitative value

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Nominal

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divides into categories; provides measurement by order and rank. Intervals may not be equal.

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Ordinal

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In addition to rank order, distance between scale points are equal. Many standardized tests use>>>NO TRUE ZERO

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Interval

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Like Interval scales except has true zero

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ratio

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refers to the extent to which assessments are consistent

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Reliability

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the extent to which a test measures the construct it is intended to measure

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Validity

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Reliability coefficient is obtained by administering the same test twice and correlating the scores

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Test-Retest Reliability

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Reliability coefficient is obtained by administering similar, but not identical tests and correlating the scores

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Parallel Form Reliability

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When using a test-retest approach, responses may be overly consistent because participants remember some of the questions asked previously

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Memory Effect

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With a parallel forms approach, respondents have taken one version of a test then take a similar form at a later date which may impact results.

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Practice Effect

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reliability score is obtained by dividing the test into halves, correlating the scores on each half.

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Split Half Reliability

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Reliability score is obtained by correlating the individual items of a test to each other by using KR-20 or Cronbach’s alpha test

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Internal Consistency

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The extent to which the measurement adequately tests the content domain such as Ability and Achievement

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Content

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The extent to which the test is an accurate measure of a particular construct or variable

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COnstruct

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refers to the degree to which scores on a test correlate

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COnvergent

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a test means that it predicts an outcome based on information from another measurement

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Critereon

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Two types of Criterion Validity:

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Concurrent validity

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yields scores at a later time from administration

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Predictive Reality

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Most commonly used method of describing central tendency. Average of all scores

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Mean

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Reports the most frequent score in the variable.
•Useful when studying nominal variables.

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Mode

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Three frequently used measures of variability are

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range, variance, and standard deviation

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the square root of the variance.

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Standard Deviation

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If the mean and standard deviation are known, individual scores can be represented relative to the entire set of scores in the distribution through standardization.

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Z Score

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To convert Z-scores to T-scores use

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T=50+10z

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Sample Size 30 or less

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T Score

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The

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End