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103 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Metabolism
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chemical processes within a living organism in order to maintain life
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Catabolism
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breaking down
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Anabolism
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building up
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Homeostasis
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tendency of a system towards equilibrium regulated by physiological processes
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Characteristics of living organisms
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one or more cells
genetic information reproduction have evolved regulate internal environment respond to environment able to grow convert environmental molecules into new biological molecules |
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What is life?
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ordered self replicating dynamic chemical reactions in equilibrium interacting with environmental materials and energy
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Bacteria
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prokaryotic family
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Archae
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prokaryotic family
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Eukaryota
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eukaryotic family
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Biomimicry
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industrial/technological design inspired by nature
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Hooke and van Leeuwenhoek
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microscope and cells
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Examples of homeostasis
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regulation of body temperature
regulation of body salinity |
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Prokaryotes
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no nucleus
no membrane-bound organelles one circular chromosome binary fission small no endocytosis |
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Eukaryotes
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nucleus
has membrane-bound organelles multiple linear chromosomes mitosis large endocytosis common |
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Turgor pressure
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pressure of the central vacuole against cell wall to maintain rigidity
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Internal compartmentalization
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separate specialized reactions from rest of cell
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Hypertonic
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higher concentration of solute
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Hypotonic
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lower concentration of solute
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Endocytosis
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taking material into the cell by wrapping around it
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Exocytosis
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expelling material from a cell through the cell membrane
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Neurons
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longest cell and cannot divide
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Mitochondrial & Chloroplast DNA
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originates from organisms engulfed by the cell and made into organelles
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Tenants of cell theory
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all living things are made of cells
cell = structural/functional unit come from preexisting cells by division contain hereditary information same chemical composition energy flow of life occurs in cells |
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Endosymbiosis
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symbiosis in which one organism lives inside the other
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Facts about Prokaryotes:
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5 x 10^30 bacteria on earth
bodies are 10 trillion cells, 100 trillion bacteria living in us |
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Common cell features:
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cell membrane
DNA ribosomes cytoplasm 500 genes shared between all three domains |
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Ionic concentrations are...
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maintained against the gradient by pumps at the expense of energy
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Cell membrane
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phospholipid bilayer
hydrophilic and hydrophobic molecule heads and tails |
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What goes through the cell membrane?
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small nonpolar molecules like oxygen and nitrogen pass through easily
large and polar molecules use transport proteins and sometimes active transport |
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Functions of transmembrane proteins:
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transport
intercellular joining enzymatic activity cell to cell recognition signal transduction attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix |
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Cytoskeleton
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determines structure and movement
made of highly organized protein fibers actin movement structure and contractual ring tubulin microtubules and structure |
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Nucleus
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where DNA is stored and transcription happens
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Nucleolus
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makes ribosomes
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Mitochondria
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site of aerobic respiration resulting in synthesis of ATP
inner and outer membrane |
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Chloroplast
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site of photosynthesis
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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
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smooth ER lacks ribosomes and synthesizes lipids
rough ER has ribosomes and makes proteins and more membrane |
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Ribosomes
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synthesize proteins
made of protein and rRNA |
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Golgi Apparatus
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post office of cell
receives, tags, and releases molecules |
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Lysosomes
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contain litic enzymes that digest/destroy stuff
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Why have organelles?
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to sequester harmful molecules
to concentrate reactants allow assembly of enzymes close together |
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Apoptosis
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self-destruction of the cell when old or abberant
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Anaerobic
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occurring without oxygen
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Aerobic
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occurring with oxygen
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Cytoplasmic streaming
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movement of organelles within live cells
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Resolution
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how clearly you can tell two objects apart
long waves hard to see short waves easier to see |
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Scientific method
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observe and ask questions
develop hypothesis design experiment (remember controls) collect and interpret data explain and generalize results communicate findings |
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Gram positive
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thick cell walls consist of 80 to 90 percent peptidoglycan
stains purple with crystal violet dye |
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Gram negative
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thin layer of peptidoglycan in cell walls
outer membrane composed of lipids and proteins does not stain with crystal violet dye |
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Coccus
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spherical
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Bacillus
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rod-shaped
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Spirillum
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spiral-shaped
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Diplo-
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two stuck together
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Staphylo-
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clumped together
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Strepto-
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stranded together
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Transformation
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in prokaryotes, picking up naked DNA plasmids
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Transduction
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transferring DNA from one cell to another, particularly from virus to host
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Phages
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viruses that infect bacteria
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Structure of bacteria:
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DNA in single circular chromosome
may contain plasmids cell wall contains peptidoglycan sometimes has carbohydrate outer capusule |
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Growth of bacteria:
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cell division occurs about every twenty minutes
easy to mutate easy to grow for expression of cloned protein genes |
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Bacteria in biotechnology?
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can be used to mass produce protein
wanted gene is inserted into plasmid with extra tag protein vectors are DNA that control expression of the plasmid within the bacteria |
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Microbial protein as reporters?
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bacteria create bioluminescent proteins
this is used by marine animals can be cloned into plant or animal cells |
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Antibiotics
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produced by microbes
inhibit the growth of other microbes |
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Modes of action - antibiotics
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stop replication
stop transcription stop translation stop cell wall synthesis stop enzymatic activity |
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Lipids
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hydrocarbons insoluble in water because of nonpolar bonds
hydrophobic |
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Types and functions of lipids:
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fats - store energy and insulate
phospholipids - structure of cell membranes carotenoids - help plants capture light energy steroids - hormones and vitamins |
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Carbohydrate
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made of saccharides
mono- single di- two poly- many |
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Types and functions of carbohydrates:
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starch - energy storage in plants
glycogen - energy storage in animals cellulose - structural in plants chitin - structural in arthropods peptidoglycans - bacterial cell wall |
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Protein
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polymer of amino acid
large polypeptides |
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Amino acid
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twenty found in proteins
differ only in the R group joined with peptide bonds to create polypeptides polymerization requires energy |
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Structure of protein:
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primary - sequence of amino acids
secondary - alpha helices and beta sheets tertiary - 3D folding quaternary - multiple tertiary together |
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Types of protein:
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structural
storage transport hormonal receptor contractile defensive enzymatic |
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Nucleic acid
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polymer of nucleotide
nitrogen base + phosphate + sugar (deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA) |
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Prions
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misfolded proteins that cause other proteins to be misfolded
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What denatures an enzyme?
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temperature
pH salinity |
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Enzymes
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are specific
active sites where molecules connect reusable lower the reaction's activation energy |
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Condensation vs. Hydrolysis
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joins two molecules and releases water
splits one molecule with addition of water |
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First macromolecule?
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RNA - able to catalyze reactions and encode genetic information
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DNA bases are...
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discovered by Watson Crick & Franklin
purine-pyrimidine paired Adenine |
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Functions of RNA:
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mRNA - message for protein synthesis from nucleus to cytoplasm
tRNA - adapter molecule integral part of ribosomes is genetic material in retroviruses can have catalytic activity controls gene expression |
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Gene facts:
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3.2 billion base pairs in humans
1.2% code for protein |
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Codons
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20 amino acids specified by 1 or more 3-base codons
3 stop codons - UAA, UAG, UGA |
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Central Dogma:
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DNA -> RNA -> protein
transcription to translation exception - reverse transcription occurs in retroviruses |
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Types of RNA:
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mRNA - messenger
tRNA - transfer rRNA - ribosomal |
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Transcription
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DNA to mRNA
starts at the promoter, upstream of start codon can happen simultaneously with translation in prokaryotes |
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Haploid
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having a single set of unpaired chromosomes
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Diploid
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having two complete sets of chromosomes
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Chromosomes in normal and sex cells:
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46 chromosomes in normal haploid cells
23 chromosomes in diploid sex cells |
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Centromere
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point where chromosome is attached to spindle fiber during division
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Chromatids
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two strands chromosomes split into during division
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Telomeres
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ends of chromosomes made up of repeating non coding sequences of bases
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Direction of new DNA growth:
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in the 5' to 3' direction (opposite of the old DNA strand)
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Helicase
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unwinds DNA
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Topoisomerase
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releases supercoiling by nicking DNA strand
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Binding protein
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prevents DNA winding back up
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Primase
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lays down RNA primer for DNA replication
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DNA polymerase
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starts at RNA primer and builds new DNA strand
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leading and lagging strands
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continuous construction in 5' to 3' direction
discontinuous fragmented construction in 5' to 3' direction |
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Okazaki fragments:
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fragments of DNA between RNA primer on the lagging strand
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RNase
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removes RMA primer
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DNA ligase
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closes gaps in sugar phosphate backbone
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Why telomeres?
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chromosomes get shorter with each division because end RNA primer cannot be filled in
in prokaryotes hairpin loops provide primer for filling in ends |
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Telomerase
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catalyzes the addition of lost telomere sequence
can be found in some cancerous cells |
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RNA polymerase
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binds to promoter
unwinds and rewinds DNA holds DNA and RNA strands catalyzes addition of ribonucleotides to RNA strand |