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Reflexivity
Humans can reflect on, think, and talk about language itself.
Displacement
Humans can refer to times (tenses) other than the present (past, future, imperfect, etc).
*No animals can fully do this, but bees can occasionally communicate about things that recently happened.
Arbitrariness
Written words don't have meaning within themselves.
*"Dog" doesn't look like a dog.
Productivity
Humans can use words to describe new situations and objects; human language is subject to change and infinite.
Fixed Reference (animals)
Animal communication is confined to the "here-and-now."
Cultural transmission
Humans must be instructed on how to use language; they do not produce instinctive sounds.
*Animals automatically make their sounds.
Duality
Human sounds can be broken down into separate parts and rearranged to be given new meaning.
While they do not understand human language, animals can ________ and ________ to it accordingly.
recognize and respond
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