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134 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Monitor Hypotheis
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Krashen (1981): Involved in learning, not acquisition. It's a device for 'watchdogging' one's output, editing and making alterations or corrections as they are consciously perceived. Avoid explicit/Intentional learning b/c hinders acquisition. One fluency established should optimal anount of monitoring/editing be employed by learner.
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Input Hypothesis
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Krashen (1981): i + 1
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Affective Filter Hypothesis
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Best acquisition occurs in environments where anxiety is low and defensiveness absent.
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Implicit Knowledge
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information that's automatically and spontaneously used in language tasks. These include phonological, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic rules for language, but do not have access to an explicit explanation of rules governing the performance
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Explicit Knowledge
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Facts a person knos about language and the ability to articulate those facts the same way.
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Long's Interaction Hypothesis
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Comprehensible input is the result of modified interaction.
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Krashen's Modified Interaction
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the various modifications that native speakers and other interlocutors create in order to render their input comprehensible to learners.
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Vygotsky's (1978) Zone of Proximal Development
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ZPD: learners construct the new language through socially mediated interaction.
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Structuralists/Descriptivists
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Bloomfield, Sapir, Hockett (1940-50's):
Only "publicly observable responses" could be subject to investigation. Task was to describe human languages and to identify structural characteristics of those language. Languages can differ from each other without limit, and that no preconceptions could apply across languages. |
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Behaviorist
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Skinner: Stimulus/Response/Reinforcement
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Generative-Transformational
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Chomsky (1960's): human language cannot be scrutinized simply in terms of observable stimuli and responses or the volumes of raw data gathered by field linguistics. Not only interested in describing language (achieving level of descriptive adequacy), but also in arriving at an explanatory level of adequacy in the study of language that is 'principled basis, independent of particular language, for the selection of the descriptively adequate grammar of each language."
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Constructivism
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Piaget/Vygotsky
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Zone of Proximal Development
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Vygotsky: The distance between a learner's existing developmental state and his or her potential development. Impt to Social Constructivism b/c it describes tasks 'that a child cannot yet do alone but could do with the assistance of more competent peers or adults' (Slavin, 2003).
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Constructivism - Piaget: stages of development setting a precondition, or readiness, for learning. Stressed importance of individual cognitive devleopment as relatively solitary act. Biological timetables and stages of development are basic, social interaction claimed only to trigger development at the right moment.
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Constructivism - Vygotsky: unity of learning and devlopment. Social interaction was foundational in cognitive development and rejected the notion of predetermined stages.
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Classical Method
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Language teaching method in which the focus is on grammatical rules, memorization of vocabulary and other language forms, translation of texts, and performing written exercises.
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Grammar-Translation Method
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LT method in which the central focus is on grammatical rules, paradigms, and vocabulary memorization as the basis for translating from one langauge to another.
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Audiolingual Method
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1940-50's: Rejection of grammar translation.
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Direct Method
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LT method popular in the early 20th C that emphasized direct target language use, oral communication skills, and inductive grammar, without recourse to translation from the first language.
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Communicative Language Teaching
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Approach to LT methodology that emphasizes authenticity, interaction, student=centered learning, task-based activities, and communication for real-world meaningful purposes.
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Methods
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coherent, prescribed group of activities and techniques for language teaching, unified by a homogeneous set of principles or foundations; sometimes proclaimed to be suitable for all foreign language teaching contexts.
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Approach
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Richards & Rogers, 2001): Pedagogical trends in language teaching now spur us to develop a principled basis upon which teachers can choose particular designs and techniques for teaching a foreign language in a specific context. Each learner, each, learner-teacher relationship, and context is unique.
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Universal Grammar
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theory postulating principles of grammar shared by all languages, thought to be innate to humans (linguistic nativism). It attempts to explain language acquisition in general, not describe specific languages. UG proposes a set of rules intended to explain language acquisition in child development.
Some students of UG study a variety of grammars to abstract generalizations called linguistic universals, often in the form of "If X holds true, then Y occurs." These have been extended to a range of traits, from the phonemes found in languages, to what word orders languages choose, to why children exhibit certain linguistic behaviors. |
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Children's Language
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A child's language is a legitimate system in its own right. Linguistic Dev. is not a process of developing fewer and fewer incorrect structure----not a language in which earlier stages have more 'mistakes' than later stages. Rather, child's language at any stage is systematic in that the child is constantly forming hypotheses on the basid of the input received and then testing those hypotheses in speech and comprehension. As child's language develops, these hypotheses are continually revised, reshaped or abandoned.
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Competence - Chomsky (1965):
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Performance - Chomsky (1965):
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Heterogeneous Competences
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multiple abilities, often unsystematic, that are in the process of being formed.
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Systematicity: consistency and predictability in learner language
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Variability: instability in learners' linguistic systems
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Learner Variables: Age
Children |
1-10: Biological/Cognitive/Social factors
Parental influence, schooling, peer pressure |
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Learner Variables: Age
Adolescents |
11-15: Bio Factors - Critical Period
Social - Parental Influence, schooling, peer pressure |
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Learner Variables: Age
Adult |
16+: Bio Factors - Critical Period
Social Factors - peer pressure, context of Second Language Learning/Teaching |
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Learner Variables: Cognition
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General Intelligence, Language Aptitude - Learning Strategies
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Learner Variables: Native Language
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Transfer: Phonological, Grammatical, Semantic
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Learner Variables: Educational Background
Non-Professional |
Number of years in school
Place of study (attitude toward education, educational system) |
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Learner Variables: Educational Background
Professional |
Educational System
Field of Study (Specialization) |
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Correlation
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The purpose of correlational analyses in language testing it to examine how the scores on two tests compare with regard to dispersing, or spreading out, the students. Essentially, correlation is the "go-togetherness" of two sets of scores.
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Correlation Coefficient
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The degree to which two sets of scores covary or vary toge4ther, is estimated statistically by calculating a correlation coefficient. Such a coefficient can reach a magnitue as high s +1.0 if relationship btw scores on two tests is perfectly direct, or positive. Alternatively, a correlation coefficient can be negative with a value as strong as -1.0 if relationship is perfectly opposite, or negative.A zero can result if no relationship exists btw the two sets of numbers.
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Dulay & Bart (ca. 1976)
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in the absence of L1 interference, transfer of L1 syntactic patterns rarely occurs in child second language acquisition. Children learning an L2 use a creative construction process, just like with their L1
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Creative Construction
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the hypothesis in child languag eacquisition that claims the rarity of L1 interference, the emergency of common acquisition orders, perception of systematic features of language, and the production of novel utterances.
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Roger Brown (1973)
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1.present progressive (-ing)
2. [and 3.] in, on 4. plural (-s) 5. past irregular 6. possessive (-'s) 7. uncontractable copula (is, am, are) 8. articles (a, the) 9. past regular (-ed) 10. third-person regular (-s) 11. third-person irregular |
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Asher's Total Physical Response (1977)
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LT method relying on physical or kinesthetic movement accompanied by language practice
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Krashen & Terrell's Natural Approach (1983)
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LT method that stimulates child language acquisition by emphasizing communication, comprehensive input, kinesthetic activities, and virtually no grammatical analysis.
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Learner Variables: Affective
Socio-Cultural |
Attitude toward native culture, second language cuture, native people , and second language people
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Why is empathy important?
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Needto be able to understand the other person's affective and cognitive states; communication breaks down when false presuppositions or assumptions are made about the other person's state.
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Learner Variables: Affective
Motivation |
Integrative
Instrumental (own or forced choice) |
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Weiner's Attribution Theory (1986)
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how people explain causes of their own success or failure in terms of ability & effort (intrinsic to the learner) and perceived task difficulty & luck (attributable to external circumstances
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Sparks et al. Linguistic Deficit Coding Hypotheis (2000)
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Anxiety in a foreign langauge class could be result of L1 deficits, namely difficulties that students may have with language "codes" (phonological, syntactic, lexical, semantic features).
Some counter this (Horwitz) by saying that since even the most proficient learners have anxiety, it's unreasonable to assume it's caused by L1 deficits. |
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Learner Variables: Affective
Egocentric |
Depression
Ansiety Homesickness Social Distance Ego Permeability Rejection Self-Conscious (efficacy) |
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Learner Variables: InputNon-Classroom
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Place of learning (L2/L1/Bilingual environment)
Type of language contact Family language environment Peer language environment |
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Learner Variables: Input
Classroom |
Type of Instruction (In/Formal)
Length of Instruction (# of years/contact hours) Place of instruction (L2/L1/Bilingual environment) Material of Instruction (un/graded or skill-oriented material) Source of Instruction (teacher---attitudes and training factor in) |
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Anomie
Durkheim (1897) Lambert (1967) |
feelings of social uncertainty, dissatisfaction, or "homelessness" as individuals lose some of the bonds of a native culture but are not yet fully acculturated in the new culture.
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Social Distance
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the cognitive and affective proximity of two cultures that come into contact within an individual
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Cummins (1980)
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BICS - Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills
CALP - Cognitive/Academic Langauge Proficiency |
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Canale & Swain Grammatical Competence (1980)
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aspect of CC that encourages knowledge of lexical items and rules of morphology, syntax, sentence-grammar semantics, and phonology. It is the competence that we associate with mastering the linguistic code of a language. This includes a focus on sentence-level grammar.
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Discourse Competence
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The ability we have to connect sentences in stretches of discourse and to form a meaningful whole out of a series of utterances. This focues on everything from simple spoken conversation to lengthy written text---looking at intersentential relationships
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Savignon Sociolinguistic Competence (1983)
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the knowledge of the sociocultural rules of language and of discourse. It requires an understanding of the social context in which language is used, the roles of the participants, the information they share, and the function of the interaction. Only in a full context of this kind can judgments be made on the appropriateness of a particular utterance.
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Canale & Swain Strategic Competence (1980)
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the verbal and noverbal communication strategies that may be called into action to compensate for breakdowns in communication due to performance variables or due to insufficient competence.
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Savignon Strategic Competence (1983)
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the strategies that one uses to compensate for imperfect knowledge of rules-- or limiting factors in their application such as fatigue, distraction, and inattention. The competence underlyying our ability to make repairs, to cope with imperfect knowledge, and to sustain communication through paraphrase, circumlocution, repetition, hesitation, avoidance, and guessing, as well as shifts in register and style.
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Language & Gender (Brown p. 234)
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CLT (Brown p. 241)
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Contrastive Analysis Hypotheis
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The principle barrier to second language acquisition is first language interference, and that a scientific analysis of the two language in question enables the prediction of difficulties a learner will encounter.
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Phonotactic Contstraints
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A set of constraints on how sequences of segments pattern, and these form part of the speaker's knowledge of the phonology of his or her language.
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Phonotactic Contstraints: Russian
/fpr/ onset in word vprok /fprɔk/ |
Speakers typically adjust an impermissible sequence by altering it to a permissible one, many English speakers would pronounce the Russian word [fprɔk] as [fəprɔk] or even delete the initial /f/ and say [prɔk] in order to adjust the impermissible sequence /fpr/ to a permissible English onset.
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Phonotactic Constraints: English
3-consonant Cluster in English |
(l)
p r s t (w) k j 1st is always an s 2nd is always a voiceless stop 3rd is either a liquid or glide |
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Form Focused Instruction
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Spada (1997): any pedagogical effort which is used to draw the learners' attention to language form either implicitly or explicitly.
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Grammar Consciousness Raising
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Ellis (1997): the incorporation of forms into communicative tasks.
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Form Focused Instruction: Two approaches
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1) explicit, discrete-point metalinguistic explanations and discussions of rules and exceptions or curricula governed nd sequenced by grammatical or phonological categories.
2)implicit, incidental references to form; noticing (learner is paying attention to specific linguistic features in input), and the incorporation of forms into communicative tasks (Grammar Consciousness Raising) |
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Form-Focused Instruction Results
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Lightbrown (2000): communicative language insrtuction as opposed to exposure to a language can increase learners' levels of attainment
Doughty (2003): Rate of acquisition and level of ultimate attainment of a language are enhanced by insturciton. |
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Chomsky's Competence vs. Performance
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Competence: knowledge of language that underlies our ability to use it
Performance: the way a person actually uses language--whether for speaking, listening, reading, or writing. |
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Task-based Instruction
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instruction in whcih classroom activities are 'tasks' similar to those learners might engage in outside the second or foreign language classroom. Tasks may be complex, for example, creating a school newspaper, or more limited, for example, making a phone call to reserve a train ticket.
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Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
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The metaphorical 'place' in which a learner is capable of a higher level of performance because there is support from interaction with an interlocutor. In Vygotsky's theory, learning takes place through and during interaction in the learner's ZPD.
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Testing Test Validity
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Equivalent Parallel Forms
Split-Half Test-Retest |
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Factors influencing language learning
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Age
Aptitude Attitude Motivation extrovert/introvert self-esteem anxiety (debilitative/facilitative) tolerance of ambiguity inhibition motivation (instrumental/integrative) |
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Validity
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the extent to which inferences made from assessment results are appropriate, meaningful, and useful in terms of the purpose of the assessment--it takes practicality and reliability into consideration
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Types of Validity
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Consequential
Construct Content Criterion-Related (concurrent/predictive) Face |
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Content Validity
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Measuring what an assessment sets out to measure
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Criterion-Related Validity
(Concurrent) |
if results are supported b other concurrent performance beyond the assessment itself (i.e. if high exam score is substantiated by actual language proficiency)
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Criterion-Related Validity
(Predictive) |
criterion is to assess (and predict) a test-taker's likelihood of future success
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Construct Validity
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whether an assessment measures or correlates with a theorized construct (proficiency/communicative competence = linguistic constructs; self-esteem/motivation = psychological)
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Consequential Validity
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Potential importance of the consequence of an assessment - accuracy in measuring intentded criteria, impact on preparation (washback), impact on the learner (un/intended), social consequences, etc.
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Face Validity
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the degree to which a test looks right and appears to measure the knowledge or abilities it claims to measure based on examinees, administrative personnel who decide to use it, etc.
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Authenticity
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1) language in test is natural as possible
2) items contextualized, not isolated 3) thematic organization provided, such as through a story line/episode 4) tasks represent/closely approximate real-world tasks |
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Washback
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the effects the tests have on instruction in terms of how students prepare for the test.
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Steps for creating a test
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1) Observations to form a Needs Analysis: Find out what skills need to be assessed
2) Develop test 3) Ask experts to examine assessment for content validity 4) Pilot Test and make revisions 5) Create final assessment |
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Split-Half Reliability
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Split odd and even questions. Find the degree of correspondence---if results (r = correlation) are good, they will have a correlation of .8, moderate of .7, and weak if below .7. p = probability, and if p<0.001, you have VERY strong correlation (1 out of 1,000 got it wrong)
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How to test Concurrent Reliability
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comparing results of two tests (i.e. classroom assessment and TOEFL). If the higher ranking students score higher and the lower-ranking score lower, it has concurrent reliability.
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Norton & Stein
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Why the Monkeys Passage Bombed
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Labov
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Post-vocalic R in social class in dept stores in NY
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Wassink
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Jamaican Creole
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Lazaraton & Wagoner (1996) on the TSE
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This report describes a qualitative discourse analysis of native speaker and nonnative speaker responses to the revised TSE® test (Test of Spoken English™). Using audiotape transcripts from six native speaker and 12 nonnative speaker respondents, the study identified the speech functions that the 15 TSE tasks elicited. The results indicated that the native speakers were generally consistent in their responses to the various tasks. Additionally, the match between the intended task functions (as per the content specifications) and the actual functions employed by the native speakers was quite close, although some nonnative speakers at the five band levels also produced the same speech functions that the content specifications predicted. In fact the performance of the most proficient nonnative speakers at Band 60 was almost indistinguishable from that of the native speakers.
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Motivation
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Bailey: Extrinsic/Instrinsic
Gardner & Lambert: Instrumental/Integrative |
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Mark Patkowski
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Even if accent is ignored, only those who started learning an L2 prior to the age of 15 could ever achieve full, native-like proficiency in the language. He also examined the relationship between eventual mastery and total length of time in the US, as well as amount of formal ESL instruction learners had.
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SLA Theory accounts for...
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individual differences
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Shattack
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using Victor & Genie, language acquisition is not uniform, thus proving weak version of CPH---If you don't learn language at an early age, you'll never learn it.
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Eclecticism
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Take best things from various methods--- a good approach is based on some principles. It should be fun, risk-free environment, there should be ample opportunity for practice. You want interaction in the classroom. To lower affective filter
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5 major methods in Second Language Teaching
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1) Grammar-Translation
2) Audio-Linguial 3) TPR 4) Natural Approach (Terrell/Krashen based off Krashen's Monitor Theory) 5) CLT (approach, not a method--more a set of principles used to teach an L2) |
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Trends in L2 Teaching
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1) Task-based instruction
2) CLT 3) Eclictism 4) Post-Methods Era 5) Discourse/Conversation Analysis 6) Balancing Bottom-up/Top-down processing Integrating 4-skills |
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Uso-Juan & Martinez-Flor
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Current Trends in the Development and Teaching of the Four Language Skills
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Focus on Form
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Krashen says not to teach grammar, but there are times when it's relevant to teach things in a situational context (Schmidt?)
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Teach Grammar: ESL vs. EFL Context
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Students can get feedback outside the classrom in an ESL situation that you don't get in an EFL context. You can give students exercises that they have to interact with native speakers thant you can't give in an EFL situation.
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Larson-Freeman
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Grammar teaching: Form-Function-Use/Meaning (pragmatics)
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Objectivity in Testing
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Making sure that there's only one possible set/answer or a clear set of criteria for an assessment
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Grammar: Consciousness-Raising Tasks
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You have given them the rule and then want to draw their attention to how one should use articles in an actual sentence. I am picking up AN apple, THE sheets of paper, AN orange
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Children's L1 Development
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6-8 mo. Babbling repetitive sound patterns
9-18 mo. one-word stage single words (nouns) 18-24 mo. two-word stage 'mini-sentences' w/ simple semantic relations 24-30 mo. early multi-word telegrapic sentences of lexical, not functional/gramm morphemes 30+ mo. later multiword gram or functional structures emerge |
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Animals vs. Humans
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Animals: small range of ways in which to communicate and very few signals which to do so
Humans: controls an unlimited sent of signals, combines signals in an infinite number of ways, and uses signals to talk about anything/everything |
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Vocabulary Development
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Age 6: all sound distinctions, most grammatical forms, ~23,000 words
Age 17: ~80,000 words |
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CPH
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Strong: Lennenberg (1967) - NLA is age-related and happens ONLY if triggered during a specific, limited period of time (2-puberty)
Weak: NLA is more-difficult and may remain incomplete if acquired after puberty (evidence: Genie) |
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Animals vs. Humans
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Animals: small range of ways in which to communicate and very few signals which to do so
Humans: controls an unlimited sent of signals, combines signals in an infinite number of ways, and uses signals to talk about anything/everything |
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Vocabulary Development
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Age 6: all sound distinctions, most grammatical forms, ~23,000 words
Age 17: ~80,000 words |
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CPH
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Strong: Lennenberg (1967) - NLA is age-related and happens ONLY if triggered during a specific, limited period of time (2-puberty)
Weak: NLA is more-difficult and may remain incomplete if acquired after puberty (evidence: Genie) |
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CALP
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BICS
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CALP
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BICS
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Pratkowsky Study
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70ish L2 immigrants & 25 L1 natives transcribed writing samples, and these samples were sent to people who would judge their proficiency.
Concluded that age had certain advantages, but only in two ways: Accent and ultimate fluency in an L2 |
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Learner Characteristics
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Age
Motivation Attitude Anxiety Intelligence Lerner Personality (int/extrov ,refl/impulsive) Self-Efficacy Learning Styles |
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Why are Language Learning Styles important?
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(Oxford, 1990): because they are tools for active, self-directed involvement which is essential for developing communicative competence.
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Learning Strategies
Cognitive v. Metacognitive |
Cognitive: those that contribute directly to SLL (i.e. using tapes, cds, movies, etc.)
Metacognitive: startegies used to self-direct language learnging (planning, setting goals, etc.) |
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Input Hypothesis
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Language acquisition occurs when the input is understandable but just a little beyond the learner's current level of language proficiency: i + 1. Therefore, students should be exposed to a lot of i + 1 or comprehensible input, and after a Silent Period, speech will naturally "emerge." Compare to Vygotsky’s ZPD.
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Monitor Hypothesis
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Monitoring is sole function of learning; too much can interfere with communicative fluency. Therefore, monitoring should be done by the learner only after fluency has been established.
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Zone of Proximal Development
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the distance between the abilities displayed independently and with social support as the ZPD; his thesis being that this "zone" was created by learning.
"the distance between the actual level of development as determined by independent problem solving [without guided instruction] and the level of potential development as determined by problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers". Measurement would thus be achieved by comparing the student's performance on both tasks. |
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Stages of Test Design:
Kathy Elder |
1) Engage in Literature and find skills necessary for X
2) Go around to that environment and observe the skills necessary for that assessment 3) Do an inventory/Needs Analysis based off of the observations and sent around to professionals in that area 4) Design, pilot, and implement assessment |
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Melbourne Video Assessments
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Occupational English Test (medical professionals)
Language Assessment for Math/Science teachers Japanese Languae Test for tour guides Language Proficiency Test for teachers if Italian Language Aptitude Test for Australian Defense School |
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Brown, A. (2003)
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Interviewer Variation
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Buck, G. (1991)
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Testing Listening Comprehension:
(1) lower-level processing - asked for production of clearly stated information (2) higher level processing - required inference based on information in the text (3) Monitoring questions - assessed their current interpretation of the text |
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Types of Various Scales
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Holistic (OPI) - failes to fully account for performance interaction (Reed & Cohen)
Pragmatic Ability Measurement Scales (Hudson et al., 1994) Multitrait Raiting for discipline-specific info (discussing linguistics in English) (Douglas & Selinker, 1993) Semi-direct measure of speaking (SOPI) to ascerain functional ability to accomplish rhetorical tasks in various language (Lazaraton & Riggenbach, 1990) |
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Item Facility
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Degree to which an item is easy or difficult for a proposed group of testtakers
# of students answering item correctly /////// total # of students responding to that item |
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Item Discrimination
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extent to which an item differentiates between high and low-ability test takers
high group # correct minus low group # correct /////// 1/2 times the total of your two comparison groups |
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IELTS
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4-skills test that tests language proficiency through open-ended short answer questions, short essay, and an abstract essay.
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IBT
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Has integrated skills - no longer tests structure because it's tested in speaking. Must read/listen then speak/write based off of what the tester reads/hears--this achieves somewhat more authenticity
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Two Allophonic Rules in English
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(1) Liquids have voiceless allophones after voiceless stops, and voiced allophones elsewhere.
Voiced [bru] vs. Voiceless[prej] (2) Liquids and glides have voiceless allophones after voiceless stops, and voiced allophones elsewhere. Voiced [vju] vs. Voiceless [kjut] |
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complementary distribution
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the distribution of allophones in their respective phonetic environments such that one never appears in the same phonetic context as the other (e.g., the distribution of long and short vowels in English)
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allophone
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variants of a phoneme, usually in complementary disribution and phonetically similar (e.g., voiced and voiceless l in English)
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phoneme
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distinctive sounds in a language that contrast with other sounds in that language (e.g., the sounds [ɪ] and [i] as in rich and reach contrast with each other as a separate phonemes in English, but not in Spanish)
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prosody
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rhythm, prominence, or intonation, often used to separate parts of a sentence, emphasize selected elements, or communicate other important information.
e.g. ma in Mandarin - 4 tones = for different meanings |
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prosody in Sign Languages
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Spoken language uses the rise and fall of the pitch of the voice, volume, and pause to achieve these effects, sign language employ facial expressions, body postures, and rhythmic devices in similar ways and for similar functions.
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Register Tones
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tones that have a stable pitch over a single syllable
e.g., Mende w/ sustained high tone for [pɛlɛ] (banana) |
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Contour Tones
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tones that change pitch on a single syllable
e.g., Mandarin w/ 4 tonal options of 'ma' |
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Vowel Length
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The length of a vowel has the ability to change the meaning of a word.
e.g., Yapese w/ [θis] ('to topple') vs. [θiːs] ('a post') |