Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
66 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Observation is Qualitative |
Inductive Data collected is words Seeks to describe a new variable or phenomenon |
|
|
Why study qualitatively? |
To understand how advertising and PR make people feel. To undertand values, attitudes and behaviors related to ad and PR |
|
|
Out there in the field: Observation |
Communication study in which researchers watch individuals Researcher takes on role of "student" studies action and interaction |
|
|
Field Observation Styles |
Level of Identification 1. Overt- researcher is known 2.Convert- unknown Level of Integration 1. Observer- researcher remains detached 2. Participant- researcher actively involved
|
|
|
Dimensions of field observation |
|
|
|
Levek of integration determines... |
Relationship to participants |
|
|
Complete Participant |
Taxi driver for a year |
|
|
Participant as observer |
Interning in an agency to find out how creatives view advertising |
|
|
Observer as participant |
Interviewing PR execs in their offices |
|
|
Complete observer |
Taping a series of client meeting |
|
|
Essentials of good field observation |
Engage over a long time Account for how observation is done Improvise Combine training and instinct Selectively focus Ground observations in relationships Distinguish social action from its influences |
|
|
Stages of field observation |
1. Choosing research site 2. Gaining access 3. Sampling 4. Collecting data 5. Analyzing data 6. Exiting |
|
|
Research Sites |
Where does the phenomenon happen reliably enough to make study possible in a particular location 1. Personal experience or suggestions from informants 2. Should avoid sites where researcher might be well-known |
|
|
Gaining Access |
How likely are participants to want to keep actions secret? Will gatekeepers need to help the researcher gain admittance? |
|
|
Sampling |
May sample locations of individuals There are no formal guidelines to determine how many observations make a "study" Purposive sampling is common, but snowball and maximum variation sampling are also used
|
|
|
Collecting data |
Fieldnotes are most common collection strategy Usually reconstructed from mental notes Often supplemented with other techniques (diaries, unobtrusive measures, document analysis) |
|
|
Analyzing data |
A system of coding of filing observations is constructed by the researcher Content analyzed for patterns and deviations from patterns Looking for general understanding |
|
|
Exiting |
Not a problem for overt researcher Complete participants may have impacted the group and built relationships Revelation of true purpose may distress participants Main job is to protect participants
|
|
|
When is participant-observer the right tool? |
To see if groups exist To understand the communication norms To study how communications norms are related to environment |
|
|
Phenomena applicable to observational study |
Practices Episodes Encounters Roles Relationships Groups Orgs Settlements Social worlds Lifestyles/subcultures |
|
|
Advantages of observation |
Takes advantage of natural setting to study phenomena Provides access to groups that would otherwise be hard to study Not dependent on participants recall Inexpensive to conduct |
|
|
Disadvantages of observation |
Little generalizeability High possibility of bias Time consuming Reactivity- process of observation may actually change the behavior of those being observed |
|
|
Interviews and Focus Groups are Qualitative |
fdsafd |
|
|
In-depth (Intensive) Interviews |
Interviewer asks questions and records participant's answers (notes, audio, video) Interviews usually long Focus on participants values, opinions, experiences Verbal and non-verbal cues may also be recorded |
|
|
In-depth interview design |
Flexible- must allow for differences btwn participants, no two interviews will be the same Iterative- repetitive, done many times so that researcher can come closer to understanding phenomenon each time Continuous- every participant adds something new to the data set |
|
|
Qualitative Interview data |
Evaluation of discourse between interviewer and participant Researcher is "in the process"- rapport can change the result
|
|
|
Why use qualitative interviews? |
Describes the participants perspective on phenomenon Researcher acknowledges that the interview represents a construction of reality between him and the participants Collects info about things hidden from observation- opinions, past experiences May corroborate info from other sources |
|
|
Types of Interviews |
Ethnographic interviews- informal field interview Informant interviews- used to gain info about cultural scene as background Narrative interviews- elicit life histories Respondent interviews- structured interviews to Clarify concepts Explain opinions Understand influences etc.
|
|
|
Sampling for interviews |
No need for randomization. Methods include: 1. Purposive sampling 2. Snowball sampling 3. Theoretical sampling |
|
|
Purposive sampling |
Cases chosen because they are believed to have something to add to the understanding of a phenomenon |
|
|
Snowball sampling |
Study based on referrals from interviewees to other people with similar characteristics |
|
|
Theoretical construct sampling |
Sample drawn by preordained rules, based on researchers theories |
|
|
Sampling Size |
Can't be decided before you being "Until a critical threshold of interpretive competence has been reached" Saturation: when researcher believes new interviews are adding little new info; usually the end of data collection |
|
|
Interview Setting |
Interview results are influenced by surroundings, context is important 1. When- keep stress on interviewee minimal 2. Where- safe place without interruptions 3. How- researcher sets the tone NOT a two way conversation, job of interviewer is to get participant to talk, not to contribute info |
|
|
Recording the qualitative interview |
Researcher must decide what will both allow for candor of participant, and assure faithful representation of event Choice Notes from memory Notes during interview Audio recorder Audio/video recorder |
|
|
Art of listening |
Most important job of interviewer is to listen- builds rapport, directs subsequent questions. Asking too many questions implies lack of attention Active listening |
|
|
Directing Questions |
Interview Schedule- the same questions in the same order, to increase comparisons between respondents- spontaneous follow up ok
Interview Guide- a list of topics for discussion, without a formal order or script |
|
|
Final Steps |
Transcribe data Review data Interpret patterns (similarities, differences) Review patterns; develop analytical files (frequencies, structures, causes, consequences) Write up and report |
|
|
What topics should be addressed |
Issues of value- how does the participant feel about the communications phenomenon under study
Issues of policy- what does the participant think should be done about the issues arising from the communications phenomenon under study |
|
|
Interviewer Introspection |
Qualitative data analysis should include some kind of self-study Introspect info makes qualitative data richer, and forces researchers to confront their own preconceived notions during analysis |
|
|
Advantages of interviews |
Offer detailed info More accurate answers to sensitive questions Rapport btwn interviewer and participant makes some topics easier to broach than in other setting |
|
|
Disadvantages of Interviews |
Generalizeability is a problem Different interview styles minimize comparability of responses when multiples researchers are working, some formats are less comparable than others Interviewer bias may impact results |
|
|
Focus groups- a special kind of interview |
Basically a group interview. Used often in the marketing/advertising and political comm areas 6-12 ppl in a relatively short time period (1-2 hrs) Sampling and question generation procedures similar to in-depth interviews |
|
|
When are focus groups used |
Not a major academic tool, but growing Used more often in advertising and PF corporate research Brainstorming |
|
|
"The Group Effect" |
Chaining- ideas develop through discussion, linking ideas that come before and ideas that come after (aka tagging) Both complementary and argumentative actions are desirable |
|
|
Focus group protocols |
Quiet, neutral location (conference room, empty class) Usually either video- or audiotaped 3 person protocol May include reaction to media
|
|
|
Moderating a focus group |
Focus group interviewer is known as a moderator Balance conversation Keep group on topic The more questions, the more structure a group will have
|
|
|
Focus group analysis |
Similar to final steps of in-depth interviews transcripts are analyzed for content categories Intergroup and intragroup conversations Group dynamic may change individual answers Some info must be inferred |
|
|
How much is enough? |
Btwn 2-10 groups or until saturation is reached Usually 6-8 participants is desirable, esp with an inexperienced moderator Recruiting issues- invite at least 150% of the ppl you want- if you think you need 20 make sure 30 say yes |
|
|
Advantages of focus groups |
Gather a lot of info quickly Extended focus groups include taking demographic info from which researchers can draw conclusions later Participants less inhibited Basis for additional research- surveys, experiments etc |
|
|
Disadvantages of focus groups |
Moderator is key Not appropriate for making quantitative comparisons of indivduals or groups Like other interviews, not generalizable Location, moderator can change results |
|
|
Case studies are qualitative |
fdsafdsa |
|
|
Case Studies: N=1 |
The most particularistic research method Studies a specific org or incident Holistic presentation of situation |
|
|
Cases are linked to culture |
Culture- the process by which meaning is produced, circulated, consumed, commodified and endlessley reproduces and renegotiated in society |
|
|
Why is culture important in PR |
Shared meanings must be acknowledged by a group You cannot separate a case and its culture "409" bumper stickers on cars |
|
|
Dominant discourse |
What is "common sense" understanding of an industry, company a policy or idea? Are there competing discourses? What publics are associated with the dominant discourse? Which are not? |
|
|
The circuit of culture... |
allows us to study the communications of meaning creation.
|
|
|
Regulation |
Controls on cultural activity to maintain social order Legal controls- explicit controls Cultural norms- implicit controls Possible controls on ad and pr Law/politics, technology, economy |
|
|
Representation |
Process by which cultural meaning is generated Associated with the form communications takes (such as language choice) or the media employed. Meaning is created and recreated by all participants |
|
|
Production |
Process by which creators of products imbue them meaning Encoding Association with AD/PR tactics Campaign execution Ads/press releases/events |
|
|
Consumption |
Process by which audiences make meaning of messages Decoding To the extent that publics decode the messae producers encoded, an AS/PR campaign is successful |
|
|
Identity |
Meanings that accrue to all social networking from nations to orgs to publics Identities are multiple, evolving and changing Associated with brand image or personality |
|
|
Articulations |
What happens at one moment forces the reassessment of the other moments- think of it as a wheel spinning- every spoke moves. There is no entry point to the circuit. |
|
|
By using the circuit of culture to study cases, attention shifts from a narrow focus on an org to a broad focus on the many publics impacted by a case both internal and external |
dsafdsa |
|
|
Advantages of case studies |
High external validity Complete research method- study continues until the phenomenon is completely understood- or no new info is available over time and multiple cases, patterns may emerge
|
|
|
Disadvantages of case studies |
No comparisons are possible (little generalization) Important to establish causation for any particular articulation Not predictive |
