Com 321

Front 1

What was Columbia's failure tied to?

Back 1

1. Organizational failure
-compromise to gain approval for shuttle
-scarce resources
-political agenda - risk billion dollar contract
-conflicting priorities
-Schedule pressures to get shuttle flyring
-lack of agreed vision
-Each party tries to get its own way, resulting in confusing goals and conflict.
2.Technical failure

Front 2

What are the political assumptions

Back 2

1. Organizations are made of coalitions of assorted interest groups.
2. Members have different values, beliefs, information, interests, perceptions.
3.Decisions involve scarce resources.
4. Conflict is center and power is important due to difference and scarce resources.
5. Bargaining and negotiations are used to decide on goals and decisions.

Front 3

Columbia from the political frame

Back 3

Coalitions: contractors, congress, white house, military, media, public
Differences: NASA wants funding, public want lower taxes, astronauts want safety
Scarce resources: limited time and money
Conflict and power: debate between contractor and NASA. Standoff between engineers and managers. Mangers used authority power.
Bargaining, negotiating: engineers tried to convince management to focus on safety

Front 4

Why are politics inevitable in organizations?

Back 4

1. Coalitions form when members have similar interests and believe they can do more together
2. People have different values
3. Difficult times create scarcer resources
4. In order to deal with differences and the lack of resources to achieve goals, power is needed which helps influencing others.
5. Goals change through bargaining and negotiations.

Front 5

4 Relational concepts firms use to make decisions more manageable

Back 5

1. Quasi-resolution: break problems into pieces and give them to different units.
2.Employ mechanisms such as procedures, traditions, contract to avoid uncertainty (think enviro is clearer than it is).
3. Grab the first acceptable solution.
4. Evolve goals.

Front 6

Power viewed in 4 frames

Back 6

Structural: emphasize authority and legitimate power, make rational decisions, monitor actions
HR: empowerment of employees, focus on collaboration to substitute for power
Political frame: needs collide and power is needed to achieve goals. Emphasis on scarce resources, authority is only one source of power, focus on how competition uses power.
Symbolic: you are powerful if others think you are. Ability to inspire. People who talk alot, belong to committees, close to action

Front 7

Authorities and Partisans

Back 7

-Partisans are members who want to exert bottom-up pressure ex/Parents are authorities and children are partisans
-Authority is needed for social control - although, authority is only in control as long as partisans respect or fear them enough.
-Strong opposition from partisans can collapse authority system
-Partisan strife can be hazardous if authority cannot Reconstruct itself fast enough to avoid chaos

Front 8

Sources of Power

Back 8

1. Position power (legitimate authority)
2. Control of rewards - deliver jobs, money, support
3. Coercive power - constrain, block, interfere or punish. Ex/Unions ability to walk out
4. Information and expertise - know how to solve problems
5. Reputation
6. Personal power - attractive, charismatic, smart - referent power
7. Alliances and networks
8. Access and control of agendas
9.Framing to shape meaning and symbols to convince others

Partisans multiple sources of power constrain authorities' capacity to make binding decisions
Power is volatile

Front 9

Where does power lie for managers or leaders?

Back 9

-In zone of indifference - areas people don't really care about.
-If they go outside of the zone, they can stir up resistance.

Front 10

Overbounded vs underbounded system

Back 10

Overbounded: power is highly concentrated and everything is tightly concentrated.
Underbounded: power is diffuse and there is loose control.

Front 11

2 frame view of conflict

Back 11

Structure: impediment to effectiveness, undermine leadership's function
Political: conflict is not a problem, it is normal and inevitable. Individuals compete for jobs, resources. Political frame puts more emphasis on strategies and tactics to deal with conflict rather than resolution. It is a natural by-product of a collective life.

Front 12

Why is conflict good?

Back 12

Harmonious organization may be apathetic and creativeness.
-Conflict challenges status quo and stimulates innovation.

Front 13

Where is conflict likely to occur?

Back 13

At boundaries, or interfaces between groups.
Horizontal: between departments.
Vertical: between border between levels.

Front 14

Political Skills

Back 14

1. Agenda Setting: create a vision and plan to achieve it while considering all forces for and against. Ability to make others think something is important and act on it. statement of interest and scenarios to get goods.
2. Mapping the political terrain: master the political turf
3. Networking and Building Coalitions - need friends and allies to get things done
4. Bargaining and Negotiation: central to decision making

Organizational change depends on these skills

Front 15

Positional vs Principle bargaining

Back 15

-Positional bargaining: select position and make concessions to agree
-Principled bargaining: separate people from problem; focus on interests, not positions; look for mutual gain; insist on objective criteria- better

Front 16

Steps to exercise influence

Back 16

to exercise influence:
-find who you need to influence
-find who will resist
-Hold you enemies close - link with them if possible
- if that fails, use more subtle or forceful methods ( have backup)

Front 17

How to map political turf

Back 17

-determine channels of information comm
-identify principal agents of political influence
-analyze possibilities for mobilizing internal and external players
-anticipate counterstrategies

Front 18

6 characteristics of bargaining

Back 18

1.Mixed-motive game: parties have different interests
2.Process of interdependent decisions: what one party wants affects the other
3.A is more powerful the more it can control B's uncertainty
4. Involves use of threats, but prefer not to carry them out
5. Making a threat credible is important - they have to believe it
6. Need to know the right level of threat: not enough is weak but too much is unbelievable

Front 19

Ethics: assessing a leaders actions

Back 19

Assessing a leaders actions:
-follow rules that are mutually understood and accepted
-comfortable discussing and defending choices
-want to be on the receiving end
-Everyone acts like you
-Alternatives that are more ethical

Front 20

4 principles of moral judgement

Back 20

Mutuality: same understanding of rules
Generality: principles are application in similar situations
Openness: willing to make thinking and decisions public
Caring: show concern for interest and feelings of others

Front 21

Three rules of OB

Back 21

1. What you look for is what you find
2. Whatever model or theory you use determines what you look for
3. Whatever model or theory you use determines what you find.

Front 22

What is power?

Back 22

The ability to influence behavior, make changes, overcome resistance, and get people to do what they would otherwise not do.

Front 23

What are the five types of power in order of least effective to most effective.

Back 23

1. Coercive Power: ability to punish others. Results are generally ST. Fear.
-produce resistance
2. Reward Power: ability to give something of value for performance
-produce compliance
3. Legitimate Power: power from tile and position - may not be following you because they want to
-produce compliance
4. Expert Power: specialized knowledge
-produces commitment
5. Referent Power: people identify what you and admire you They choose to follow you.
-produces commitment
(Information power: having the latest, best and most information - keep others in the loop to grow referent power)

Front 24

6 principles of persuasion

Back 24

Liking: People like those who like them. Application – Uncover real similarities and offer genuine praise.
Reciprocity: If you give, you will receive. Application – Give what you want to receive.
Social Proof: People follow the lead of similar others. Application – Use peer power whenever it’s available.
Consistency: People align with their clear commitments. Application – Make their commitments active, public, and voluntary.
Authority: People defer to experts. Application – Expose your expertise; don’t assume it’s self-evident.
Scarcity: People want more of what they can have less of. Application – Highlight unique benefits and exclusive information.
-loss language: people are more likely to act when there is potential loss rather than gain.
-exclusivity is persuassive

Front 25

3 Tactics to Influence

Back 25

1. Ingratiation: use flattery, create goodwill, being friendly
2. Personal appeals: appeal to loyalty and friendship
3. Exchange: offer favours or benefits
4. Coalitions: get the support of others
5. Pressure: use demands, threats, reminders
6. Legitimacy: claiming the authority to make decision
7. Rational Persuasion: use facts
8. Inspirational appeals: appeal to higher order values and goals
9. Consultation: invite to help figure out best approach

Rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, and consultation tend to be the most effective, especially when the audience is highly interested in the outcomes of a decision process. Pressure tends to frequently backfire.

Front 26

5 assumptions of the symbolic frame

Back 26

1.What is most important is not what happens but what it means
2. Events and actions have multiple interpretations as people interpret life differently. Activity and meaning are loosely coupled.
3. People create symbols to resolve confusion, find direction and anchor faith.
4. Myths, heroes, rituals, ceremonies, and stories help people find purpose and passion. What is expressed is more important that what is produced.
5. Culture bonds an organization and helps it accomplish goals.

Symbols mediate meaning and anchor culture

Ambiguity encourages inventiveness

Front 27

How are the following symbols used: Myths, heroes, rituals, ceremonies, and stories

Back 27

- Myths brings cohesiveness, clairty and direction
- visions turn an orgs beliefs and purpose into an image of the future.
-values: what an org stands for
-Heroes model corporate values they hope to instill. Act as examples in times of uncertainty or stress. Inspires
-Stories grant comfort, reassurance, direction and hope. It can spark action, foster collaboration, Convey an orgs values
-Rituals always have a purpose. To overcome loss, for initiation, to recognize achievements. It reinforces the culture and bonds a group. It can soften grief.
-Ceremonies create order, clarity and predictability. Difference is that it happens less often than rituals. It deepends faith.

Front 28

How are the following symbols used: Metaphor, humor, play

Back 28

Metaphor: make the strange familiar and the familiar strange. Makes complex issues understandable.
humor: integrates, expresses skepticism, draws people together
Play: relaxes rules and encourages creativity

Front 29

What are the two parts of culture

Back 29

product: embodies wisdom from experiences
process: renews as newcomers learn the old ways

Front 30

Hoftede's cultural dimensions

Back 30

1. Power distance: measure of power inequality
2. Uncertainty avoidance
3. Individualism vs collectivism
4. Masculinity vs Femininity
5. LT vs ST orientation
6. Indulgence cs Restraint - indulgence is high in a society that allows free gratification of basic needs

Front 31

9 aspects of the symbolic frame - to build a culture

Back 31

1. How someone becomes a member is important
2.Diversity is a competitive advantage
3. Lead by example, not by command to hold a team together
4. Specialized language fosters cohesion and commitment.
5. Stories carry history, values and group identity. Guides behaviors
6.Humor and play releases tension and encourages creativity
7.Rituals and Ceremonies lifts spirit and reinforces values
8.Informal cultural players make large contributions
9. Soul(culture) is the secret to success. People put something of themselves into the company.

Culture, soul, and spirit are at the essence of high performance.

Strong cultures associated with use of the symbols and core values are widely held

Front 32

3 types of isomorphism

Back 32

Isomorphism is the process of organizations becoming more similar.
1.Coercive isomorphism: become more similar because of outside pressures
2.Mimetic: copy another org
3.Nomative: occurs because professionals being shared values and norms to the workplace.

Organizations can transact more easily, be acknowledged as reputable, etc for being similar.

Front 33

What does it mean by organizations as a theater

Back 33

Organizations follow an almost scripted play because of social norms.

Front 34

6 processes of orgs as theaters

Back 34

1. Meetings: scripts to express feelings and make audience feel reassured that issues are being resolved
2.Planning: essential ceremony to maintain legitimacy.
3. Evaluation:assures spectators that an org is responsible, serious and well managed. It is a ritual.
4. Collective bargaining: negotiations follow a script. Following the script will ensure effectiveness.
5. Power: you are powerful if others think you are. Sometimes attributed to symbol in command.

The theater aspect helps manage impressions: symbols can be used to shape a convincing argument

Despite often failing, these processes sustain the expected drama for the audience. Organizations are judged by appearance

Front 35

4 symbolic roles of plans

Back 35

1. They are symbols: signal that all is well
2. They are games:it is a test of will
3. They are an excuse for interaction: forces discussion and increase interest
4. They are advertisements: investment brochure.

Front 36

Symbolic leaders do the following

Back 36

-build on past to create a vision
-lead by example
-tell stories of heroes
-leverage the power of ceremonies and rituals

Front 37

How is culture formed:

Back 37

-formal statements
-Design of physical spaces
-Role modeling by leaders
-reward and status systems
-stories, legends, myths
-What leaders pay attention to, what they measure and what they control

people become excited and committed to work in a place with a unique identity where they feel what their doing is important.

Front 38

4 types of rites or ceremonies

Back 38

1.Passage (training)
2. Enhancement (award night)
3. Renewal ( retreats)
4. Integration (office parties)

Front 39

Competing Values Frame work

Back 39

Internal-External Dimension
Internal: employee needs
External: focus on macro perspectives

Flexibility-Control Dimension
Flexible: teamwork, participation, new opportunities
Control: less change

Flexible
- external: adaptability culture
-internal: clan culture

Stable:
-external: mission culture
-internal: bureaucratic

Front 40

Three downsides to a strong culture

Back 40

1. high barriers to change
2. high barriers to become more diverse
3.Harder to merge

Front 41

What is institutional theory

Back 41

external focus on how orgs project images to external audiences

when goals and performances are ambiguous, orgs can maintain stakeholder support by staging the right play

Front 42

What is the symbolic function of drama?

Back 42

Symbolic function:
-engages actors in their performance
-builds excitement, hope

Front 43

Characteristics of effective drama

Back 43

-provides a ceremonial stage
-reassures stakeholders
-maintains confidence and faith

Front 44

Myth vs reality as managers

Back 44

Myth: managers are rational, spend time planning, deciding, controlling. They are organized and in control.

Reality: life is hectic, constantly changing. Too busy. Rely on intuition.

Front 45

Structural frame

Back 45

Metaphor: Organization as factory or machine
Central concepts: Rules, roles, goals, policies, technology, environment
Image of Leadership: Social architecture
Core challenge: Align structure to task, technology, environment
Risk:
-ignore non-rational elements
-over-rely on authority for power

Front 46

HR frame

Back 46

Metaphor: Organization as family
Central concepts: Needs, skills, relationships
Image of Leadership: Empowerment
Core challenge: Align organizational and human needs
Risk:
-cling to unrealistic human nature that everyone wants growth
-overly optimistic (scarce resources, conflict)

Front 47

Political frame

Back 47

Metaphor: Organization as jungle
Central concepts: Power, conflict, competition, organizational politics
Image of Leadership: Advocacy
Core challenge: Develop agenda and power base
Risk:
-cynical self-fulling prophecy, reinfocing conflict
-seen as scheming, selfish

Front 48

Symbolic frame

Back 48

Metaphor: Organization as carnival, temple or theatre
Central concepts: Culture, meaning, ritual, ceremony, stories, heroes
Image of Leadership: Inspiration
Core challenge: Create faith, beauty and meaning
Risk:
-Relies heavily on user's art
-Symbols may be just fluff or camouflage
-symbols may be hard to understand

Front 49

Interpretation of org processes from each frame

Back 49

pg 314

Front 50

What are the five questions to ask when choosing a frame?

Back 50

1. Is commitment and motivation essential?
-HR: participation and collaboration
-Symbolic: using symbols and values to motivate
2. In the technical quality important?
-Structural:data, logic
3. High levels of ambiguity or uncertainty?
-Political: expects that pursuit of self-interest will product confusion which requires political intervenion
-Symbolic: symbols help find direction
4. Are conflict and scarce resources significant? Political: political strategies focus on these things
symbolic: symbols help adversaries overcome differences through shared values
5. Working from the bottom up?
Political: partisans have other sources of power to help make changes from the bottom

Front 51

Three qualities of an effective leader

Back 51

1. Provide the frame
2. Know what to pay attention to
3. Know what messages they are sending

Front 52

Qualities of a structural Leader

Back 52

1. Study structural problems
2.Rethinks relationship of strategy, structure and enviro
3. Focuses on implementation - put design in place
3. Experiments, evaluates & adapts

Main job:
-clarify goals, structures
-focus on task, facts, logic
-not rigidly authoritarian
-design process appropriate to the circumstances to achieve goals

Lack of structure causes confusion, frustration and conflict

Effective when:
-leader: analyst, architect
-process: analysis, design

Ineffective when:
-leader: bureaucracy, tyrant
-process: management by detail and ruling

Front 53

Qualities of an HR Leader

Back 53

1. Believes in people and communicates that belief
2. Are visible and accessible
3. Empowers others

Main job:
-balance interest of org and its people
-respond to needs and support employees

Effective when:
-leader: catalyst (causese others to work well together), servant
-process: support, empowerment

Ineffective when:
-leader:weakling, pushover
-process: give up authority (abdication)

Front 54

Qualities of a political Leader

Back 54

1.Know what they want and what they can realistically get.
2. Assesses distribution of power and interests (whose support do I need etc)
3. Builds linkages (relationships) to key stakeholders
4. Persuades first, negotiates second and coerce only if necessary.

Main job:
-recognize political reality and deal with conflict
-build power base and use it carefully

Effective when:
-leader:advocate (supporter, recommender), negotiator
-process: advocacy, coalition building

Ineffective when:
-leader: con artist, thug
-process: manipulation, fraud

Front 55

Qualities of a symbolic Leader

Back 55

1. Leads by example
2. Uses symbols to capture attention
3. Frame experience: offer plausible interpretation
4. Communicates a vision: hopeful image of the future
5. Tell stories
6. Studies and uses the history of company: link history to values etc.

Main job:
-to inspire - give ppl something they can believe in
-use traditions and values to build culture

Effective when:
-leader: prophet (inspirer), poet
-inspiration, meaning-making

Ineffective when:
-leader: fanatic (over-enthusiasm), charlatan (claims to have more knowledge than do)
-process: mirage, smock and mirrors

Front 56

Leadership vs Management

Back 56

Management is about coping with complexity; it brings order and predictability to a situation.

Leadership, then, is about learning how to cope with rapid change.
.

Front 57

What are the three main differences between leadership and management?

Back 57

1. Management plan and budget - set targets, allocate resources. Leaders set a direction - develop a vision with strategies to produce change needed.

2.Management organize and staff -create structure and set of jobs, communicate plan and monitor. Leaders align people - communicate new direction to people and getting them to move in the same direction. Makes it easier for bottom to initiate changes and reduce prob of conflicting initiatives.

3. Management control and problem solve - monitor results, produce reports, identify deviations and solve. Leaders motive and inspire to keep people moving in the new direction by appealing to their needs and values (self-esteem, belonging, reward).

-strong informal networks help coordinate leadership activities.
-overcoming challenges seems to be key in producing leaders

Front 58

Globalization vs global generalization

Back 58

Globalization: increased cross-cultural contact
Global generalization: steryotypes

Front 59

9 cultural dimensions of GLOBE

Back 59

1- Performance Orientation (high=training, low=family connections)
2- Future Orientation (LT vs ST)
3- Power Distance
4- Uncertainty Avoidance (high=formalizes provedure, low=informal norms)
5- Humane Orientation (high=sympathy for others, human rights, low=power, self-enhancement)
6- Institutional Collectivism (intergrated in groups in society) (high=cooperation, low=autonomy)
7- In-group Collectivism (strong ties with immediate groups_
8- Assertiveness (high=competitive, low = sympathy, loyalty)
9- Gender Egalitarianism (high=equal, low=men)

Front 60

Global Leadership

Back 60

Leadership is impacted by cultural orientation.
Ex/ Americans like empowerment, confidence and charisma. Dutch like egalitarianism. Arabs like power.

Culture can be clustered into regions.

There are:
-universally endorsed leadership attributes: just, honest, intelligent etc.
-universality undesirable: non-cooperative, irritable, egocentric etc.
-cultural contingent (depends on the culture): evasive, formal, logical, unique, ambitious, etc.

Front 61

What are the barriers to change in each frame?

Back 61

Change undermines existing structures
1. Structural: loss of direction, clarity and stability. Confusion and chaos.
2. HR: anxiety, uncertainty; people feel incompetent and needy.
3. Political: disempowerment; conflict between winners and losers.
4. Symbolic: loss of meaning and purpose; clinging to the past. (symbol is destroyed)

Front 62

What are the essential strategies for change in each frame?

Back 62

1. Structural: realigning, renegotiating formal processes, communicating
2.HR: Training, participation, psychological support.
3. Political: create arenas(rules, regulators, observers) where issues can be renegotiated and new coalitions can form
4. Symbolic: create transition rituals (help ppl let go of the past), mourn the past, celebrate the future.

Front 63

8 steps in change initiative for orgs

Back 63

1. Create a sense of urgency.
2. Create a guiding team to move things along
3. Create an uplifting vision and strategy
4. Communicating the vision and strategy
5. Removing obstacles, empower people to move ahead
6. Plan and Celebrate short-term victories
7. Sticking with the process when things get tough, produce more change
8. Shaping a new culture to support new ways.

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Front 64

4 issues with change

Back 64

1. Individuals feel less effective, valued and in control.
2. Disrupts existing patterns of roles, rels
3. Creates conflict between winners (benefit) and losers
4. Loss of meaning.

Front 65

Why change fails

Back 65

1. Not urgent enough
-this can help in many other steps
2. Not strong enough guiding coalition
3. Lack of vision (confusion)
4. Under-communicating the vision (people's hearts and mind were not captured)
5. Not removing obstacles (structure, people)
6. Not planning for ST wins (urgency levels may drop)
7. Declaring victory too soon (kills momentum)
8. Not anchoring change in culture (show ppl new way is better, make sure new hires support change)

Front 66

Leadership Ideas

Back 66

-Leadership not the same thing as power
-Leaders expected to persuade, inspire, not coerce or manipulate
-Leadership is distinct from authority
-Authority produces obedience because of the position (legitimate power) to make certain decisions
-Leaders make things happen, but things also make leaders happen
-Leaders are not independent actors: they both shape and are shaped by circumstances and their constituents
-Leadership is distinct from position – you can lead from anywhere

Front 67

Strategic change

Back 67

-must have a vision
-must consider technology, products, strategy and culture (internal)
-macro environment

Front 68

5 ingredients for change

Back 68

-Clear Need
-An appropriate Idea
-Cohesive Top Management Support
-Sufficient Resources
-Successful Implementation

Front 69

3 stages to change

Back 69

1. Unfreezing
2. Change Action
3. Refreezing

Front 70

Why do people resist change?

Back 70

-unsure about their ability
-loss of status
-implies that they had failed
-loss of interesting work
-add boring work
-position becomes less important
-threaten job security
-effects of change are unknown
-lead to new relationships
-lead to loss of control

Front 71

5 barriers to change on an individual level

Back 71

-Changes that make knowledge and skills outdated/unnecessary
-Changes associated with economic or status loss
-Changes suggested by others
-Changes involving risks
-Changes involving disruption of social relationships

Front 72

5 barriers to change on an org level

Back 72

-Excessive focus on costs
-Failure to perceive benefits
-Lack of coordination & cooperation
-Incompatible systems
-Risk too high

Front 73

leader's role in creating change an the individual level

Back 73

-Don’t present change as the implied failure of existing ways of doing things.
-Clarify expectations. Create hope, but be honest.
-Involve others: help people understand the why
-Legitimize questions about “how will it affect me?”
-Ask for input and show that you’ve listened
-Ask questions that promote insight. What would you do if you had my job?