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146 Cards in this Set
- Front
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the processes involved in retaining, retrieving, and using information about stimuli, images, events, ideas, and skills, after the original information is no longer present
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memory
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the model proposed by Atkinson and Shriffrin describing memory as a mechanism that involves processing information through a series of stages, which include short-term memory and long term memory
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modal model of memory
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the underlying principle of a problem
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structural features
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a brief stage of memory that holds information for seconds or fractions of a second. First stage in modal model of memory
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sensory memory
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a memory mechanism that can hold a limited amount of information for a brief period of time, usually around 30 seconds, unless there is rehearsal
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short-term memory (STM)
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a memory mechanism that can hold large amounts of information for long periods of time
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long-term memory (LTM)
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in Atkinson and Shiffrin's modal model of memory, active processes that can be controlled by the person and may differ from one task to another (rehearsal)
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control processes
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the process of repeating a stimulus over and over, usually for the purpose of remembering it, that keeps the stimulus active in short-term memory
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rehearsal
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the continued perception of light for a fraction of a second after the original light stimulus has been extinguished
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persistence of vision
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the procedure used in Sperling's experiment in which he was studying the properties of the visual icon. Participants were instructed to report all the stimuli they saw in a brief presentation
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whole report-method
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the procedure used in Sperling's experiment in which he was studying the properties of the visual icon. Participants were instructed to report only some of the stimuli in a briefly presented display
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partial-report method
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a procedure used in Sperling's experiment in which he was studying the properties of the visual icon. Participants were instructed to report only some of the stimuli in a briefly presented display. A cue tone that was delayed for a fraction of a second after the display was extinguished indicated which part of the display to report
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delayed partial report method
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brief sensory memory for visual stimuli that lasts for a fraction of a second after a stimulus is extinguished (sensory memory stage of modal model)
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iconic memory/visual icon
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brief sensory memory for auditory stimuli that lasts for a few seconds after a stimulus is extinguished
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echoic memory
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when information learned previously interferes with learning new information
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proactive interference (PI)
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the number of digits a person can remember used as a measure of the capacity of STM
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digit span
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combining small units into larger ones, such as when individual words are combined into a meaningful sentence. Can be used to increase the capacity of memory
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chunking
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a collection of elements that are strongly associated with each other but are weakly associated with other elements
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chunk
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the form in which stimuli are represented in the mind (visual, semantic, phonological forms)
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coding
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determining how a stimulus or experience is represented in the mind
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mental approach to coding
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representation of the sound of a stimulus in the mind
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auditory coding
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coding in the mind in the form of a visual image
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visual coding
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coding in the mind in the form of meaning
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semantic coding
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a situation in which conditions occur that eliminate or reduce the decrease in performance caused by proactive interference
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release from proactive interference
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a limited-capacity system for temporary storage and manipulation of information for complex tasks such as comprehension, learning, and reasoning
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working memory
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the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information
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phonological loop
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the part of working memory that holds and processes visual and spatial information
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visuospatial sketch pad
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the part of working memory that coordinates the activity of the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketch pad
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central executive
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an effect that occurs when letters or words that sound similar are confused (T and P)
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phonological similarity effect
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the notion that it is more difficult to remember a list of long words than a list of short words
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word-length effect
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interference with operation of the phonological loop that occurs when a person repeats an irrelevant word such as "the" as he or she is carrying out a task that requires the phonological loop
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articulatory suppression
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an additional component added to Baddeley's original working memory model that serves as a "backup" store that communicates with both LTM and the components of working memory. Holds information longer and has greater capacity than the phonological loop or visuospatial sketch pad
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episodic buffer
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a task in which information is provided, a delay is imposed, and then memory is tested
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delayed-response task
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a language based on hand and arm gestures that is used by deaf people in the US and parts of Canada
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American Sign Language (ASL)
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a condition caused by prolonged vitamin B1 deficiency that leads to destruction of areas on the frontal and temporal lobes that causes severe impairments in memory
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Korsakoff's Syndrome
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in a memory experiment in which a number of participants are presented with a list of words, this is a plot of the percentage of participants remembering each word, versus the position of that word in the list
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serial-position curve
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in a memory experiment in which a list of words is presented, enhanced memory for words presented at the beginning of the list
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primacy effect
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memory that involves conscious recollections of events or facts that we have learned in the past
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declarative memory
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memory that occurs when an experience affects a person's behavior, even though the person is not aware that he or she had the experience
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implicit (nondeclarative) memory
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memory for specific events that have happened to the person having the memory. Those events are usually remembered as a personal experience that occurred at a particular time and place.
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episodic memory
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memory for knowledge about the world that is not tied to any specific personal experience
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semantic memory
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according to Tulving, the defining property of the experience of episodic memory, in which a person travels back in time in his or her mind to reexperience events that happened in the past
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mental time travel
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the experience of mental time travel that occurs when experiencing an episodic memory
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self-knowing
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used by Tulving as equivalent to the self-knowing characteristic of episodic memory
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remembering
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used by Tulving to describe the experience of semantic memory (contrast with self-knowing and remembering which he used to describe the experience of episodic memory and non-knowing--implicit memory)
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knowing
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semantic memories that have personal significance. These are often easier to remember than semantic memories that are not personally significant
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personal semantic memories
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a term used by Tulving to describe implicit memory. Refers to the fact that the defining characteristic of implicit memory is that a person is unaware that it is being used
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nonknowing
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when an initial presentation of a stimulus affects the person's response to the same stimulus when it is presented later
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repetition priming
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memory for how to carry out highly practiced skills. A type of implicit memory because although people can carry out a skilled behavior, they often cannot explain exactly how they are able to carry out this behavior
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procedural memory
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the initial stimulus presented in the repetition priming procedure. If priming occurs, the presentation of this stimulus affects a participant's response to a test stimulus, which is presented later
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priming stimulus
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a procedure for testing memory in which stimuli are presented during a study period and then, later, the same stimuli plus other, new stimuli are presented. the participants' task is to pick the stimuli that were originally presented
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recognition test
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a test in which participants are presented with stimuli and then, after a delay, are asked to remember as many of the stimuli as possible
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recall test
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when people are more likely to rate statements they have read or heard before as being true, just because of prior exposure to the statements
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propaganda effect
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the process of acquiring information and transferring it into memory
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encoding
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the process of remembering information that has been stored in long-term memory
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retrieval
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rehearsal that involves repetition without any consideration of meaning or making connections to other information
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maintenance rehearsal
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rehearsal that involves thinking about the meaning of an item to be remembered or making connections between that item and prior knowledge
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elaborative rehearsal
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part of levels-of-processing theory that states that there are different depths of processing
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levels of processing
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the idea that memory depends on how information is encoded with better memory being achieved when processing is deep than when processing is shallow
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levels of processing theory
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involves attention to meaning and is associated with elaborate rehearsal
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deep processing
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involves repetition with little attention to meaning and is associated with maintenance rehearsal
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shallow processing
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the idea that the processing that occurs as an item is being encoded into memory can be deep or shallow
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depth of processing
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when the type of task that occurs during encoding matches the type of task that occurs during retrieval. This type of processing can result in enhanced memory
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transfer-appropriate processing
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memory for a word is improved by relating the word to the self
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self reference effect
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cues that help a person remember information that is stored in memory
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retrieval cues
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memory for material is better when a person generates the material him or herself rather than passively receiving it
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generation effect
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the increased firing that occurs in a neuron due to prior activity at the synapse
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long-term potentiation (LTP)
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loss of memory for something that happened prior to an injury or traumatic event such as a concussion
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retrograde amnesia
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amnesia for events that occur after an injury--that is, the inability to form new memories
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anterograde amnesia
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when amnesia is most severe for events that occurred just prior to an injury and becomes less severe for earlier, more remote events
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graded amnesia
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the process that transforms new memories into a state in which they are more resistant to disruption
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consolidation
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a process of consolidation that involves structural changes at synapses that happen rapidly, over a period of minutes
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synaptic consolidation
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a consolidation process that involves the gradual reorganization of circuits within brain regions and takes place on a long time scale, lasting weeks, months, or even years
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systems consolidation
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proposes that memory retrieval depends on the hippocampus during consolidation, and then once consolidation is complete, retrieval no longer depends on the hippocampus
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standard mode of consolidation
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a process that occurs during memory consolidation in which the hippocampus replays the neural activity associated with a memory. During this, activity occurs in the network connecting the hippocampus and the cortex. The activity results in the formation of connections between the cortical areas
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reactivation
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memories for events that occurred long ago
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remote memories
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an area in the temporal lobe that consists of the hippocampus and a number of surrounding structures. Damage causes problems in forming new long-term memories
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medial temporal lobe
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a procedure for testing memory in which a participant with cues such as words or phrases to aid recall of previously experienced stimuli
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cued recall
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the principle that we learn information together with its context. This means that presence of context can lead to enhanced memory for the information
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encoding specificity
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the principle that memory is best when a person is in the same state for encoding and retrieval
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state-dependent learning
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memory is better when learning occurs in a number of short study sessions with breaks in between, than when learning occurs in one long session
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distributed versus massed practice effect
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a procedure in which pairing a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that elicits a response causes the neutral stimulus to elicit that response
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conditioning
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a procedure in which pairing a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that elicits fear or avoidance causes the neutral stimulus to elicit fear or avoidance
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fear conditioning
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a process by Nader and others that occurs when a memory is reactivated (occurs more rapidly than consolidation)
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reconsolidation
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remembering to perform intended actions
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prospective memory
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memory for dated events in a person's life. Usually considered to be a type of episodic memory, but has also been defined as including personal semantic memories
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autobiographical memory
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remembering an event as though you are seeing it
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field perspective
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remembering an event as observed from the outside, so the person observes him or herself experiencing the event
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observer perspective
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the empirical finding that people over forty years old have enhanced memory for events from adolescence and early adulthood, compared to other periods of their lives
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reminiscence bump
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an explanation for the reminiscence bump, which states that memories are better for adolescence and early adulthood because people assume their life identities during that time
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life narrative hypothesis
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an explanation for the reminiscence bump, which states that memories are better for adolescence and early adulthood because encoding is better during periods of rapid change that are followed by stability
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cognitive hypothesis
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the idea that events in a person's life story become easier to recall when they fit the cultural life script for that person's culture
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cultural life script hypothesis
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life events that commonly occur in a particular culture
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cultural life script
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memory of emotionally charged or especially memorable events that have been claimed to be particularly vivid and accurate
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flashbulb memory
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recall that is tested immediately after an event and then is retested at various times after the event
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repeated recall
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the idea that we remember some life events better because we rehearse them (Neisser explains flashbulb memories)
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narrative rehearsal hypothesis
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the idea that what people report as memories are constructed based on what actually happened plus additional factors, such as expectations, other knowledge, and other life experiences
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constructive approach to memory
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a method of measuring memory in which a person reproduces a stimulus on repeated occasions so his or her memory is tested at longer and longer intervals after the original presentation of the material to be remembered
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repeated production
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the process by which people determine the origins of memories, knowledge, or beliefs. Remembering that you heard about something from a particular person would be an example of this
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source monitoring
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misidentifying the source of a memory. equivalent to source misattribution
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source monitoring error
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knowledge of the origins of our memories, knowledge, or beliefs. For example, knowing that the source of a person's memory for a particular event was seeing it reported on television
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source memory
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inference that occurs when reading or hearing a statement leads a person to expect something that is not explicitly stated or necessarily implied by the statement
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pragmatic inference
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a person's knowledge about what is involved in a particular experience
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schema
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a type of schema. The conception of the sequence of actions that describe a particular activity
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script
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occurs when misleading information presented after a person witnesses an event can change how that person describes the event later
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misformation effect
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the misleading information that causes the misinformation effect
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misleading post event information (MPI)
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the idea that misleading post event information impairs or replaces memories that were formed during the original experiencing of an event
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memory-trace replacement hypothesis
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when more recent learning interferes with memory for something that happened in the past
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retroactive interference
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testimony by eyewitnesses to a crime about what they saw during commission of the crime
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eye-witness testimony
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a situation that occurs in which eye witnesses to a crime tend to focus attention on a weapon, which causes poorer memory for other things that are happening
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weapons focus
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a procedure used for interviewing crime scene witnesses that involves letting witnesses talk with a minimum of interruption, and also uses techniques that help witnesses recreate the situation present at the crime scene by having them place themselves back in the scene and recreate things like emotions they were feeling, where they were looking, and how the scene may have appeared when viewed from different perspectives
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cognitive interview
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a mental representation used for a variety of cognitive functions, including memory, reasoning, and using and understanding language
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concept
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the process by which things are placed into groups called categories
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categorization
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groups of objects that belong together because they belong to the same class of objects, such as "houses," "furniture," or "schools"
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category
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the idea that we can decide whether something is a member of a category by determining whether the object meets the definition of the category
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definitional approach to categorization
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in considering the process of categorization, the idea that things in a particular category resemble each other in a number of ways
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family resemblance
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the idea that we decide whether something is a member of a category by determining whether it is similar to a standard representation of the category, called a prototype
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prototype approach to categorization
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a standard used in categorization that is formed by averaging the category members a person has encountered in the past
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prototype
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the degree to which a particular member of a category matches the prototype for that category
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prototypicality
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a category member that closely resembles the category prototype
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high prototypicality
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a category member that does not resemble the category prototype
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low prototypicality
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a technique in which the participant is asked to indicate whether a particular sentence is true or false
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sentence verification technique
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the ability to judge the truth or falsity of sentences involving high-prototypical members of a category more rapidly than sentences involving low-prototypical members of a category
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typicality effect
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the approach to categorization in which members of a category are judged against exemplars, which are examples of members of the category that the person has encountered in the past
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exemplar approach to categorization
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in categorization members of a category that a person has experienced in the past
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exemplar
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organization of categories in which larger, more general categories are divided into smaller, more specific categories
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hierarchical organization
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the level in Rosch's categorization scheme that is a level below the basic level, and so would correspond to kitchen table for the basic category of table
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subordinate level
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in Rosch's categorization scheme, the level that would correspond to table or chair for the superordinate category of furniture. this level is psychologically special because it is the level above which much information is lost and below which little is gained
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basic level
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the highest level in Rosch's categorization scheme that corresponds to general categories such as furniture or vehicles
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superordinate level
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the approach to concepts in which concepts are arranged in networks that represent the way concepts are organized in the mind
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semantic network approach
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a feature of some semantic network models in which properties of a category that are shared by many members of a category are stored at a higher level node in the network
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cognitive economy
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activity that spreads out along any link in a network that is connected to an activated node
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spreading activation
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a procedure in which a person is asked to decide as quickly as possible whether a particular stimulus is a word or nonword
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lexical decision task
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a network model of mental operation that proposes that concepts are represented in networks that are modeled after neural networks (also called parallel distributed processing approach)
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connectionism
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the type of network proposed by the connectionist approach to the representation of concepts. Based on neural networks but not necessarily identical to them
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connectionist networks
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"neuronlike processing units" in a connectionist network
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units
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units in a connectionist network that are activated by stimulation from the environment
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input units
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units in a connectionist network that are located between input units and output units
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hidden units
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units in a connectionist network that contain the final output of the network
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output units
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the strength of a connection between units in a connectionist network
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weights
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a learning process in which mistakes are corrected. This mechanism is a property of some types of connectionist networks
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supervised learning
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during learning in a connectionist network, the difference between the output signal generated by a particular stimulus and the output that actually represents that stimulus
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error signal
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a process by which learning can occur in a connectionist network, in which an error signal is transmitted backward through the network. This provides the information needed to adjust the weights in the network to achieve the correct output signal for a stimulus
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back propogation
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disruption of performance due to damage to a system that occurs only gradually as parts of the system are damaged. this occurs in some cases of brain damage and also when parts of a connectionist network are damaged.
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graceful degradation
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a condition associated with brain damage in which a person can see an object but cannot name the object
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visual agnosia
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neurons in the temporal lobe that respond best to objects in a specific category
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category-specific neurons
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