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98 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the definition of cognitive?
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Mental processes needed to make a sense of the world
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What is the information processing approach?
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Used by the cognitive approach to explain how we receive, interpret and respond to information.
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What are the stages of the information processing approach?
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Input ----> Process ----> Output
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What does the information processing approach link to?
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The processes of a computer.
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What does encoding mean?
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Changing a sensory input into memory trace
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What are the 3 storage systems for memory?
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Sensory store, Short term memory store and long term memory store
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What is a laboratory experiment?
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Tightly controlled environment. Independent variable manipulated and dependent variable measured. Participant randomly allocated to a group.
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What are the advantages of a laboratory experiment ?
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Can control extraneous variables. Can establish cause and effect
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What are the disadvantages of a laboratory experiment?
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Highly artificial- lacks ecological validity, Demand characteristics, experimenter effects.
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What is a field experiment?
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Carried out in a natural environment. Less control over extraneous variables. Independent variables still manipulated and dependent variable measured.
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What are the advantages of a field experiment?
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Participants might not be aware but more natural. Ecological validity.
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What are the disadvantages of a field experiment?
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No control over setting- extraneous variables. Time consuming to set up. Possible ethical issues.
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What is a natural experiment?
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Conducted in a natural environment. Independent variable is not manipulated by researcher but is naturally occurring.
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What are the advantages of a natural experiment?
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Ecological validity. Less demand characteristics.
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What are the disadvantages of a natural experiment?
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Lack of control over extraneous, participant variables. Tends to be unique- hard to find (e.g. money)
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What is an independent variable?
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What is changed (manipulated)
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What is a dependent variable?
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What is being measured
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What is operationalisation?
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How will you measure the dependent variable and alter the conditions of the independent variable.
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What are the 3 types of participant designs?
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Independent groups, matched pairs, repeated measures
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What is independent groups?
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One group of participants per experimental condition.
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What is matched pairs?
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Similar to independent groups but participants matched on a characteristic important to the study.
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What is repeated measures ?
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Same groups of participants in each experimental condition.
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What is order effects?
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In repeated measures design, need to counterbalance (swap the order around for each participant) or randomize (participant allocated randomly to an order of conditions) to ensure order effects do not take place.
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What are extraneous variables?
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Any variable apart from independent variable that can affect your results. A confounding variable is one that has had an effect on your results.
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What are situational variables?
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An extraneous variable found in an environment
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What are participant variables?
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Participants can affect the study (mood, intelligence, experience, age etc.)
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What are experimenter effects?
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The effects the researcher can have on the results e.g. attitude, build, gender, subtle clues
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What is ecological validity?
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If the study represents natural situation- if lacking can lead to demand characteristics (unnatural behavior)
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What is reliability?
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When a study is repeated and similar results are found
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What is validity?
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How well something measures what it is supposed to measure
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What is population validity?
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Does the sample reflect the population
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What are the two theories of memory?
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Levels of processing
Multi-Store Model |
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What are the two theories of forgetting?
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Cue dependent forgetting
Trace decay |
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Who did the Levels of processing Framework and in what year?
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Craik and Lockheart in 1972
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In levels of processing what are the two different types of rehearsal?
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Maintenance rehearsal
Elaborate rehearsal |
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What is maintenance rehearsal?
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Rehearse information to preserve it for a short time- not a strong memory.
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What is elaborate rehearsal?
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Giving information meaning- deeper consideration= stronger meaning.
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What is a central processor?
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Handles all kinds and quantities or perceptual information and determines how it is processed.
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Meaningless information=
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Shallow processing
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Distinctive relevant information=
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Deeper processing
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What are Craik and Tulvings 3 types of processing?
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Structural, Phonemic, Semantic
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What is structural processing?
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What it looks like
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What is phonetic processing?
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What it sounds like
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What is semantic processing?
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What it means (best memory)
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What are the strengths of Levels of processing theory?
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Hyde and Jenkins found that processing the meaning of words increased the memorability of the word.
Applications are wide- Used to enhance revision and memory and can be applied to learning language and reading . Accounts for diversity of memories that we store-Multi Store Model does not account for weak and strong memories. Levels of processing explains difference in memory durability. |
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What are the weaknesses of levels of processing theory?
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Depth of processing could be a variety of things, not just meaning of information.
Morris et al 1977 phonetic words remembered better than semantic words. Only explains explicit memory (conscious recall) Not implicit memory (automatic recall) Describes memory- doesn't explain how it works. Does not account for all learning. |
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Whose theory was the Multi-Store Model of Memory and in what year was it?
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Atkinson and Shriffin in 1968
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What was the three areas the multi-store model of memory is interested in?
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Capacity, Duration, mode of representation
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What is capacity?
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The size of the store
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What is duration?
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How long information remains in the store
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What is mode of representation?
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The form in which the information is stored
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What else are the researchers interested in?
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Encoding, Storage and retrieval
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What is encoding?
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How memories are encoded/ how they are registered as memories
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What is storage?
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Keeping information so we can then use it again
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What is retrieval?
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Getting information from our memories so we can use it
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What is the sensory stores capacity like? |
Very large |
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What is the sensory stores duration like? |
Up to 2 sconds |
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What format is the sensory stores information stored in? |
In the format it was recieved |
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What is the short term memory capacity like? |
limited to 5-9 items |
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What is the short term memory duration like? |
Up to 30 seconds |
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What format is the information stored in the short term memory? |
Acoustically |
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What is the capacity like in the long term memory? |
Unlimited |
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What is the duration like in the long term memory? |
Possibly forever |
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What format is the information stored in the long term memory? |
Mainly semantically but also visually and acoustically |
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How is information in the sensory store lost? |
Lost through decay |
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How is information in the short term memory lost? |
through displacement or decay |
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How is information in the long term memory lost? |
Decay, retrieval, failure or interference |
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What are the strengths of the multi-store model of memory? |
large amount of supporting scientific evidence making it reliable. Case studies give psychological support. Early and highly influential study that inspired much more research. |
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What are the weaknesses of the multi-store model of memory? |
Too simplistic for what is a complex system. Case studies go against it. What is capacity- storage or processing? Experiments done are usually lab so lack ecological validity. Other theories do not support it. Suggests rehearsal is the only way for information to enter the long term memory but some things cant be rehearsed. |
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What is the theory of cue dependent theory of forgetting? |
The theory that we forget because we are not in the same situation as we were when we remembered the information. |
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What is context dependent? |
Situation. Explains why revisiting a place after many years triggers memories of being there= context dependent. |
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What is a study which looked at context dependent forgetting and in what year? |
Godden and Baddeley in 1975. Said recall in same environment as learning=better recall. |
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What is another study which supports context dependent forgetting? |
Schab in 1990 smell of chocolate can be a strong aid to recall. |
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What is state dependent forgetting? |
Emotional and physical state. When happy we recall more happy memories, and vice versa when sad. |
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What studies support the state dependent forgetting? |
Goodwin et al in 1969 Alcohol- those who hid money whilst drunk were more likely to be able to find the money whilst drunk. Eich et al in 1975 Marijuana- better recall when same state (eg drug at study/ drug at test)/ (no drug/ no drug) |
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What are the strengths of cue dependent theory of forgetting? |
lots of empirical support. Idea is testable in a way trace decay is not. explains tip of tongue phenomenon. |
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What are the weaknesses of cue dependent theory of forgetting? |
Empirical evidence uses words lists and unfamiliar or unusual cues-lacks validity. Lab experiment can lead to demand characteristics. Hard to define cues- music can be state and context cue. Although improved recall- still a lot not remembered so must be some other explanations. |
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What is trace decay theory? |
One of the earliest explanations of why we forget, why we forget over time. Physical change creating a memory trace or 'engram'. Repeat and rehearse it to keep it. Subject to neurological decay. Fragile to start with but if rehearsed becomes stronger and lasts longer. Through disuse and the passage of time traces will decay and information will be lost forever. |
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What are the strengths of the trace decay theory? |
Reitman focused on short term memory. Found poorer recall if words were recalled after a 15 second gap then if recalled straight away. No displacement or rehearsal so must have decayed. Mckenna and Glendon focused on long term memory, found shop workers or office staff who had been trained on CPR showed poor recall when being tested up to 3 years later. Alzheimer patients seem to lose memories completely rather than just access to them when brain degenerates. |
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What are the weaknesses of the trace decay theory? |
Almost impossible to test- how do we know if a memory has gone completely or just can't be recalled. Can't have period of nothing after learning which means we cant discount displacement or interference. Cant explain why some things retained and some not eg flashbulb memory. |
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What year was Godden and Baddely's experiment? |
1975 |
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What was the aim of Godden and Baddelys experiment? |
To investigate whether a natural environment can act as a cue for recall. |
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How many participants took part in Godden and Baddelys study? |
18 members of a dive club. |
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What was the procedure of Godden and Baddeleys experiment? |
Participants learnt list of 38 unrelated 2 or 3 syllable words. randomly allocated to 1 of 4 conditions: Land-land Land-water water-water water-land. Took place in Scotland over 4 days. Heard words in blocks of 3, list presented twice. After 4 minute delay recalled words in any order. |
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What were the results of Godden and Baddelys experiment? |
Recall was about 50% higher when it took place in same environment as learning. 37% dry/dry. 23% wet/dry. 32% wet/wet. 24% dry/wet. |
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What was the conclusion of Godden and Baddelys experiment? |
Environment can act as a contextual cue for recall. |
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What were the strengths of Godden and Baddeley study? |
Some reliability as experiment with controls, however extraneous variables such as weather could have effected results. Cues very obvious as done in different environments. Experiment and artificial task- divers are used to carrying out tasks underwater and was a field study so some ecological validity. Showed that disruption between conditions was not the reason for reduced recall. |
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What were the weaknesses of Godden and Baddeley study? |
Small group of divers so lack of generalisability. Environments so different that not really applicable to real life and possibly only applicable to divers. Although more remembered still a lot forgotten not weaknesses of study but weakness of conclusion. |
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What was the aim of Craik and Tulvings experiment? |
To test the levels of processing theory |
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What was the procedure of the levels of processing experiment? |
Participants shown words through a tachitoscope and had to answer yes or no to a question that required either structural, phonemic or semantic processing. The questions were: Is there a word there? Is the word in capitals? Does the word rhyme with? Does the word fit into this category? Does the word fit into this sentence? Then they were given a surprise test to either recall the words seen or recognise the words seen form a list. |
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What was the results of the levels of processing experiment? |
Recall substantially for those processed semantically. About 17% for structural, 36% for phonemic and 65% for semantic. |
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What was the conclusion from the levels of processing experiment? |
Recognition was greater for those words that were processed semantically. Deeper processing means increased recall/recognition and supports levels of processing. |
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What were the strengths of the levels of processing experiment? |
Craik and tulving did not tell participants they would need to recall words so not consciously trying to remember so accurate reflection of levels of processing. Hyde and Jenkins, participants remember 51% more words processed semantically. Reliable as experiments strongly controlled and replicable. Application for learning-revising, learning to read, learning a language. |
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What were the weaknesses of the levels of processing experiment? |
Morris et al 1977 found that info that has relevance to the participant more likely to be remembered. Low ecological validity due to lab setting. artificial task. idea of depth of processing is too vague. |
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What is a key issue for cognitive? |
Are flashbulb memories a special type of memory or not special, just rehearsed? |
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What is a flashbulb memory? |
detailed and particulary vivid recollections of an extraordinary event eg national trgedies such as 9/11 or personal events such as first day of primary school. Recall is detailed- who you were with, where you were etc. |
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What theorists say yes flashbulb memories are a special type of memory? |
Brown and Kulik- said they are special as they are different from everyday information. Emtoion involved activated different way of encoding. Winograd and Killinger- repetition does not improve recall at all. (against Neisser) |
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What theorist say no flashbulb memories are not a special type of memory? |
Neisser- said they are no different from other memories- so unusual likely to have been repeated loads/massive media coverage. Talarico and Rubin- Share same characteristics as ordinary memories and fade over time- even if still confident of recall. |
