Cognition Flashcards

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Cognition

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*the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

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Encoding

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*the processing of information into the memory system-for example, by extracting meaning

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Storage

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*the process of retaining encoded information over time

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Retrieval

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*the process of getting information out of memory

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Parallel Processing

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*the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions.

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Sensory Memory

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*the immediate very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

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Short-term Memory

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*activated memory that holds a few items briefly

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Long-term memory

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*the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

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Working Memory

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*a never understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

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Explicit Memory

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*memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

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Effortful Processing

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*encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

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Automatic Processing

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*unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

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Implicit Memory

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*retention independent of conscious recollection

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Iconic Memory

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*a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

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Echoic Memory

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*a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

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Chunking

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*organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

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Mnemonics

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*memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

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Spacing Effect

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*the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention that is achieved through massed study or practice

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Testing Effect

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*enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information

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Shallow Processing

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*Encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

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Deep Processing

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*encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words, tends to yield the best retention

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Hippocampus

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*a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

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Flashbulb Memory

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*a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

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Long-term potentiation

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*an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

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Recall

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* a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

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Recognition

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*a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

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Relearning

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*a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

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Priming

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*the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

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Mood-congruent memory

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*the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

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Serial Position Effect

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*our tendency to recall best the last and first items on a list

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Anterograde Amnesia

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*an inability to form new memories

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Retrograde Amnesia

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*an inability to retrieve information from one's past

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Proactive Interference

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*the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

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Negative Interference

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*the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

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Repression

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*in psychoanalytic theory; the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

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Misinformation Effect

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*incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

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Source Amnesia

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*attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

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Deja Vu

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*that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

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Cognition

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*al the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

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Concept

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*a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

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Prototype

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*a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories

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Creativity

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*the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

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Convergent Thinking

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*narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

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Divergent Thinking

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*expands the number of possible problem solutions

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Algorithm

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*a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier-but also more error prone-use of heuristics

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Heuristic

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*a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but more error-prone

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Insight

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*a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

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Confirmation Bias

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*a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

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Mental Set

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*a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

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Intuition

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*an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

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Representativeness Heuristic

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*judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

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Availability Heuristic

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*estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind we presume such events are common

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Overconfidence

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*the tendency to be more confident that correct-to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

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Belief Perseverance

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*clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

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Framing

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*the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements

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Language

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*our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

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Phoneme

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*in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

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Morpheme

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*in a language the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word

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Grammar

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*in a language a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.

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Babbling Stage

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*beginning at about 4 months the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

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One-word Stage

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*the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

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Two-word stage

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*beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements

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Telegraphic Speech

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*early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram

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Aphasia

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*impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca's area or to Wernicke's area

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Broca's area

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*controls language expression-an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

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Wernicke's area

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*controls language reception-a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

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Linguistic Determinism

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*Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think