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49 Cards in this Set

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Likert Scale

Quasi-Direct measure, single item



A series of opinion statements, respondents read each item & indicate their agreement or disagreement with each statement.



Presumes there are equal intervals among categories. EX: strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, strongly agree



Most often 1-5 or 1-7 scales

Guttman Scale

A scale that progresses from items easiest to most difficult to accept



Highest score = people agree with all of the items



Useful for tackling difficult subjects such as abortion

Semantic Differential

Direct measure, single item



Focuses on emotional aspect of attitude.



Indicate feelings about an object on a pair of bipolar adjective scales. Scale assesses different meanings people ascribe to a person or issue



Focused on ONE object but you get MULTIPLE evaluations for that one attitude. EX: class evaluations

Semantic Differential - 3 dimensions to rate concepts

1. Evaluation (good or bad for me?)


2. Potency (strong or weak?)


3. Activity (active or passive?)

Thurstone Scale

Quasi-direct measure



Basically just circle/check off statements you agree with



The experimenter ranks the questions with how closely they agree or disagree with the argument



Ranking = points assigned to it. Take average rankings

Likert Scale

Direct measure, single item



A series of opinion statements, respondents read each item & indicate their agreement or disagreement with each statement.



Presumes there are equal intervals among categories. EX: strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, strongly agree



Most often 1-5 or 1-7 scales

What is a direct measure of attitude?

Likert scale, Semantic differential. Good for when you only care about a certain attitude.



Not as good for capturing ambivalence.

What is an unstructured measure of attitude?

Essay or free response. Can capture ambivalence, but causes a lot of missing data.. people skip the questions



Focus groups



What are physiological indicies?

How much arousal someone gets from looking at something; their body response



Heart rate, salivation, skin response (sweat), pupil dialation, eye tracking.



Does not give you valence, can be inaccurate

What is the error-choice test?

AKA information test.


A question with two M/C answers, but both answers are wrong.



Difficult to come up with two choices that have the real answer in the middle. Can throw people off if they know the real answer.

What should you keep in mind when writing measures of attitude?

Pretest, pretest, pretest!



Avoid double-barreled questions - "How much confidence do you have in Obama to handle X and Y?"



Validity concerns - are we actually measuring at attitude, or capturing something else?



Reliability concerns - are our measures consistent?

What are two factors that can cause bias?

Survey context: questions appearing earlier in the survey can influence later responses. Question-order effects



Wording: misleading/confusing questions, double negatives..

What is one other way to measure attitude strength?

Reaction time. Most often measured in milliseconds.



(IAT - Implicit association test)

What are the pitfalls in attitude measurement?

Respondent carelessness in answering the questions



People’s desire to say the socially appropriate thing rather than what they truly believe




Tendency to agree with items regardless of their content

What are Perloff's recommendations to ask good questions?

○ Use words that all respondents can comprehend


○ Write specific and unambiguous items


○ Avoid double negatives


○ Pretest items to make sure people understand your questions


○ If you think order of questions will influence respondents, ask questions in different sequences to check out order effects


○ Avoid politically correct phrases that encourage socially desirable responses


○ Write items so that they take both the positive and negative sides of an issue (to reduce respondents’ tendency to always agree)


○ Consider whether your questions deal with sensitive, threatening issues (sex, drugs, antisocial behavior). If so, ask these questions at the end of the survey, once trust has been established


○ Allow people to say “I don’t know.” This will eliminate responses based on guesses or a desire to please the interviewer



○ Include many questions to tap different aspects of the attitude

What is the summative measure of attitudes?

* The content is ignored, what matters is how much a belief is evaluated and how strongly it is heldBelief x evaluation = attitude

What is charisma?

A powerful influence on ordinary people.



A man treated as superhuman or having exceptional qualities

What are two factors that complicate charisma effects?

--Interaction with audience factors


Followers influence self-perception of leaders, there is an inter-play between leader & followers that builds a strong relationship between them



--Historical factors


A person who has charisma in one era might not have the same influence in another


Chemistry exists from a particular set of circumstances, psychological needs, and social conditions

What are the 3 fundamental communicator characteristics?

Authority, Credibility, Social attractiveness

What is authority?

Not a persuasive strategy, it's coercion. Influence through compliance



Audience tries to gain reward or avoid punishment.



Milgram's obedience experiments

What are 3 explanations for Milgram's results?

Early socialization - people are socialized to obey authority



Trappings of authority - "aura of legitimacy" - experimenter's clothes, institution status, experimenter's gender



Binding forces - people thought they did not have adequate knowledge or expertise

What are the definitions of credibility?

Main source factor - believability of communicator



Attitude toward a source of communication held at a given time by a receiver.



Audience shares same values/attitudes as communicator. Not something a speaker just has - speaker has to earn it.



Someone using internalization to influence

What are the factors that influence credibility?

Education


Occupation


Experience


Nonfluencies in speech delivery (um, uh)


Speech rate


Citing evidence sources


Position avocated


Liking


Humor

Why does credibility matter?

Highly credible people are not always going to be the most persuasive



When does credibility matter?

Does not matter when the issue is of high or low personal relevance to the audience



Does not matter if the source is revealed at the beginning

What's the difference between counterattitudinal and proattitudinal messages?

Counterattitudinal: against your attitude (high credible source = persuasive)



Proattitudinal: agrees with your attitude (low credible source = persuasive)


What are the core characteristics of credibility?

Expertise:


-knowledge or ability of the communicator


-belief that the communicator has special knowledge



Trustworthiness


-perceived honesty, character, & safety of the communicator


-A speaker can be seen as an individual of integrity & character



Goodwill


-Perceived caring


-Speaker conveys they have the listeners' interest at heart. Empathetic towards audience

What are the two types of bias?

Knowledge bias-


Thinking that the communicator is biased. The audience member thinks the speaker's background has prevented them from being objective



Reporting bias-


Perception that the communicator has chosen to not disclose certain facts or points of view

What is the role of context in credibility?

Situational factors......



--Audience size:


Large class, you want the prof to be loud & entertaining. Small class, you want the prof to be empathetic & caring.



--Communicator role:


Functions the communicator performs for the individual. EX: Therapist - composure, poise, character



--Cultural & political context

What is social attractiveness?

Influence through identification. Audience wants a positive relationship & identify with the speaker.


What are the 3 components to social attractiveness?

Liking, similarity, physical attractiveness

What is liking?

Credibility can override liking. If you think someone is highly credible, it doesn't matter if you like them or not.



Communicators are most successful when they are liked.



Relevance can influence liking - if something is very relevant to you it doesn't matter if you like the speaker



Disliked communicators can be more persuasive - do a better job of changing attitudes than a liked communicator

What is similarity?

Indirectly influences persuasion.



Difficult to measure



Similarity influences liking, liking increases trustworthiness and influences persuasion

What is physical attractiveness?

Indirectly influences persuasion.



Works in the same way similarity does - influences someone, increases credibility thru trustworthiness



Attraction → liking → trustworthiness → credibility



Matters most in low relevance topics/situations. Used in advertising a lot.

What are strategies to increase the chances of turning an interview into a job offer?

Dressing nicely



Researching the company - credibility



Being prepared - likeability, not nervous

What are interview strategies related to source factors?

Similarity - finding common ground



Credibility/attractiveness - dressing well



Experience - prepared to talk about your resume



Speech rate - come prepared, be calm



Reliable/trustworthiness - arriving on time

Name as many sequential influence strategies as you can?

Foot-in-the-door


door-in-the-face


pre-giving


low-balling


that's-not-all


fear-then-relief


pique


disrupt-then-reframe

Why does foot-in-the-door work?

Bem's self-perception theory. You do a favor, you think of yourself as someone who does favors. Then you agree to the second request for that reason.



Consistency needs... it's dissonant to reject a second request after complying with the first.



Social norms... social responsibility, help those in need.

What was Rittle's study?

Foot in the door technique.



Self-perception theory... someone asked to help child get candy out of the machine was more likely to agree to volunteer at a kid's event.

When does foot-in-the-door work?

Works better with pro-social issues & when second request is a logical step-up from the first.



Doesn't work with the bang-bang request

Why does door-in-the-face work?

Guilt about turning down the first request



Want to be flexible, "meet halfway"



Second request seems less costly

When does door-in-the-face work?

Works better with pro-social issues



Works better when the same person makes both requests



Works better with a short delay between the two requests

Why does pre-giving work?

People feel socially obligated to RTF



People don't like to feel indebted to others



Gratitude, liking

When does pre-giving work?

When the target accepts teh favor


When the target & persuader are strangers



CAN BE UNETHICAL: Drug companies & doctors

What is low-balling?

Persuader induces someone to comply with a request & then "ups the ante" by increasing cost of compliance



Used car salesman.



Persuader begins with a small request & then adds on a grandiose alternative.



Action initially requested is the TARGET BEHAVIOR, what changes is the COST associated with the target action

Why does low-balling work?

Once you agree to a request, you're dissonant at the thought of backing away from the request



What is pique?

Make the request in an unusual manner. Interest is piqued, refusal script is disrupted



EX: asking for "17 cents" instead of a quarter

What is disrupt-then-reframe?

Disrupts the "ongoing script" then reframes the request.



Saying "it's a bargain" or going door-to-door. Recounting bills at donut shop counter.

What is compliance-gaining?

Any interaction in which a message's source attempts a target to perform behavior that the target might not otherwise perform



Focus on communication.