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124 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Adaptation
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the tendency to respond to the demands of the environment in ways that meet one's goals
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Organization
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the tendency to integrate particular observations into coherent knowledge
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Assimilation
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the process by which translate incoming information into a form that they can understand
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Accommodation
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the process by which people adapt current knowledge structures in response to new experiences
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Equilibration
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the process by which children (or other people) balance assimilation and accommodation to create stable understanding
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Sensorimotor stage
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the period (birth to 2 years) within Piaget's theory in which intelligence is expressed through sensory and motor abilities
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Preoperational stage
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the period (2-7 years) within Piaget's theory in which children become able to represent their experiences in language, mental imagery, and symbolic thought
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Concrete operational stage
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the period (7-12 years) within Piaget's theory in which children become able to reason logically about concrete objects and events
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Formal operational stage
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the period (12 years and beyond) within Piaget's theory in which people become able to think about abstractions and hypothetical situations
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Object permanence
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the knowledge that objects continue to exist even when they are out of view
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A-not-B error
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the tendency to reach where objects have been found before, rather than where they were last hidden
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Deferred imitation
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the repetition of other people's behavior a substantial time after it originally occurred
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Symbolic representation
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the use of one object to stand for another
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Egocentrism
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the tendency to perceive the world solely from one's own point of view
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Centration
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the tendency to focus on a single, perceptually striking feature of an object or event
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Conservation concept
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the idea that merely changing the appearance of objects does not change their key properties
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Task analysis
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the research technique of identifying goals, relevant information in the environment, and potential processing strategies for a problem
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Structure
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the basic organization of the cognitive system, including its main components and their characteristics
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Processes
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the specific mental activities, such as rules and strategies, that people use to remember and to solve problems
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Problem solving
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the process of attaining a goal by using a strategy to overcome an obstacle
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Sensory memory
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the fleeting retention of sights, sounds, and other sensations that have just been experienced
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Long-term memory
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information retained on an enduring basis
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Working (short-term) memory
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a kind of workspace in which information from sensory memory and long-term memory is brought together, attended to, and processed
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Basic processes
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the simplest and most frequently used mental activities
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Encoding
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the process of representing in memory information that draws attention or is considered important
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Rehearsal
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the process of repeating information over and over to aid memory
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Selective attention
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the process of intentionally focusing on the information that is most relevant to the current goal
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Utilization deficiency
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the phenomenon that initial uses of strategies do not improve memory as much as later issues
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Autobiographical memory
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explicit memories of events that took place at specific times and places in an individual's personal past
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Infantile amnesia
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the inability of most adults to remember anything of their lives before the age of 3 years and little more before the age of 5 years
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Overlapping-waves theories
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an information-processing approach that emphasizes the variability of children's thinking
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Dynamic-systems theories
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an information-processing approach that emphasizes how varied aspects of the child function as a single, integrated whole
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Core-knowledge theories
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approaches that emphasize the sophistication of infants' and young children's thinking in areas that have been important throughout human evolutionary history
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Domain specific
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limited to a particular area, such as living things or people
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Personification
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generalizing knowledge about people to infer properties of other animals
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Sociocultural theories
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approaches that emphasize the contribution to children's development of other people and the surrounding culture
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Guided participation
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a process in which more knowledgeable individuals organize activities in ways that allow less knowledgeable people to learn
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Cultural tools
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the innumerable products of human ingenuity that enhance thinking
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Private speech
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the second phase of Vygotsky's internalization-of-thought process, in which children develop their self-regulation and problem-solving abilities by telling themselves aloud what to do, much as their parents did in the first stage
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Intersubjectivity
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the mutual understanding that people share during communication
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Joint attention
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a process in which social partners intentionally focus on a common referent in the external environment
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Social referencing
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the tendency to look to social partners for guidance about how to respond to unfamiliar or threatening events
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Social scaffolding
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a process in which more competent people provide a temporary framework that supports children's thinking at a higher level than children could manage on their own
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Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
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the range of performance between what children can do unsupported and what they can do with optimal support
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Symbols
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systems for representing our thoughts, feelings, and knowledge and for communicating them to other people
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Language comprehension
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understanding what others say (or sign or write)
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Language production
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actually speaking (or signing or writing) to others
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Generatively
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the idea that by using the finite set of words in our vocabulary, we can put together an infinite number of sentences and express and infinite number of ideas
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Phonemes
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the elementary units of meaningful sound used to produce languages
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Phonological development
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the acquisition of knowledge about the sound system of a language
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Morphemes
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the smallest units of meaning in a language, composed of one or more phonemes
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Semantic development
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the learning of the system for expressing meaning in a language, including word meaning
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Syntax
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rules in a language that specify how words from different categories (nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc) can be combined
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Syntactic development
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the learning of the syntax of a language
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Pragmatic development
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the acquisition of knowledge about how language is used
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Metalinguistic knowledge
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an understanding of the properties and function of language - that is, and understanding of language as language
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Critical period
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the time during which language develops readily and after which (sometime between age 5 and puberty) language acquisition is much more difficult and ultimately less successful
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Infant-directed talk (IDT)
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the distinctive mode of speech that adults adopt when talking to babies and very young children
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Bilingualism
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the ability to use two languages
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Prosody
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the characteristic rhythm, tempo, cadence, melody, intonational patterns, and so forth with which a language is spoken
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Categorical perception
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the perception of speech sounds as belonging to discrete categories
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Voice onset time (VOT)
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the length of time between when air passes through the lips and when the vocal chords start vibrating
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Intersubjectivity
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the mutual understanding that people share during communication
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Joint attention
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a process in which social partners intentionally focus on a common referent in the external environment
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Reference
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in language and speech, the associating of words and meaning
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Holophrastic
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the period when children begin using the words in their small productive vocab one word at a time
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Overextension
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the use of a given word in a broader context than is appropriate
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Style
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the strategies that young children enlist in beginning to speak
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Referential (analytic) style
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speech strategy that analyzes the speech stream into individual phonetic elements and words; the first utterances of children who adopt this style tend to use isolated, often monosyllabic words
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Expressive (holistic) style
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children who use this speech strategy give more attention to the overall sound of language - its rhythmic and intonational patterns - than to the phonetic elements of which it is composed
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Wait and see style
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the children who use this speech strategy often begin to speak very late but then have a large vocabulary and quickly acquire more words
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Fast mapping
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the process of rapidly learning a new word simply from the contrastive use of a familiar and an unfamiliar word
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Pragmatic cues
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aspects of the social context used for word learning
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Syntactic bootstrapping
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the strategy of using the grammatical structure of whole sentences to figure out meaning
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Telegraphic speech
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the term describing children's first sentences that are generally two word utterances
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Overregularization
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speech errors in which children treat irregular forms of words as if they were regular
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Collective monologues
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young children's talk with one another in which the content of each child's turn has little or nothing to do with what the other child has just said
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Narratives
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descriptions of past events that have the basic structure of a story
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Universal grammar
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a set of highly abstract, unconscious rules that are common to all languages
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Modularity hypothesis
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the idea that the human brain contains an innate, self-contained language module that is separate from other aspects of cognitive functioning
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Connectionism
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a type of information processing approach that emphasizes the simultaneous activity of numerous, interconnected processing units
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Dual representation
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the idea that a symbolic artifact must be mentally represented in two ways at the same time - both a real object and as a symbol for something other than itself
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Concepts
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general ideas or understandings that can be used to group together objects, events, qualities, or abstractions that are similar in some way
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Category hierarchy
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categories that are related by set-subset relations, such as animal/dog/poodle
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Perceptual categorization
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the grouping together of objects with similar appearances
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Superordinate level
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the most general level within a category hierarchy such as animal in the animal/dog/poodle example
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Subordinate level
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the most specific level within a category hierarchy, such as poodle in the animal/dog/poodle example
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Basic level
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the middle level, and often the first level learned, within a category hierarchy, such as god in the animal/dog/poodle example
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Naïve psychology
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a commonsense level of understanding of other people and oneself
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Theory of mind
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a basic understanding of how the mind works and how it influences behavior
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False-belief problems
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tasks that test a child's understanding that other people will act in accord with their own beliefs even when the child knows that those beliefs are incorrect
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Theory of mind module (TOMM)
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a hypothesized brain mechanism devoted to understanding other human beings
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Autism
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a syndrome that tends to produce a number of intellectual and emotional limitations, particularly in understanding and relating to other people
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Pretend play
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make believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, for example, using a broom to represent a horse
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Object substitution
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a form of pretense in which an object is used as something other than itself
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Sociodramatic play
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activities in which children enact minidramas with other children or adults
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Essentialism
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the view that living things have an essence inside them that makes them what they are
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Egocentric representations
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coding of spatial locations relative to one's own body, without regard to the surroundings
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Dead reckoning
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the ability to keep track continuously of one's location relative to the starting point and thus to go directly back to it
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Numerical equality
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the realization that all sets of N objects have something in common
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Subitizing
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a process by which adults and children can look at a few objects and almost immediately know how many objects are present
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g (general intelligence)
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the part of intelligence that is common to all intellectual tasks
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Fluid intelligence
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ability to think on the spot to solve novel problems
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Crystallized intelligence
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factual knowledge about the world
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Primary mental abilities
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seven abilities said by Thurstone to be crucial to intelligence
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Three stratum theory of intelligence
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Carroll's model of intelligence, including g at the top of the hierarchy, eight moderately general abilities in the middle, and many specific processes at the bottom
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Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
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a widely used test designed to measure the intelligence of children 6 years and older
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IQ (intelligence quotient)
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a summary measure used to indicate a child's intelligence relative to others of the same age
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Normal distribution
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a pattern of data in which scores fall symmetrically around a mean value, with most scores falling close to the mean and fewer and fewer scores farther from it
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Standard deviation
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a measure of the variability of scores in a distribution; in a normal distribution, 68% of scores fall within 1 standard deviation of the mean and 95% of scores fall within 2 standard deviations
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Carolina Abecedarian Project
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a comprehensive and successful enrichment program for children from low income families
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Multiple intelligence theory
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Gardner's theory of intellect, based on the view that people possess at least eight types of intelligence
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Theory of successful intelligence
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Sternberg's theory of intellect, based on the view that intelligence is the ability to achieve success in life
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Phonemic awareness
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ability to identify component sounds within words
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Phonological recording skills
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ability to translate letters into sounds and to blend sounds into words
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Visually based retrieval
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proceeding directly from the visual form of a word to its meaning
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Strategy-choice process
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procedure for selecting among alternative ways of solving problems
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Dyslexia
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inability to read well despite normal intelligence
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Phonological processing
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ability to discriminate and remember sounds within words
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Mental model
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processes used to represent a situation or sequence of events
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Comprehension monitoring
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the process of keeping track of one's understanding of a verbal description or text
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Project Rightstart
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a curriculum designed to prepare kindergartners from low income backgrounds for elementary school mathematics
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Mathematical equality
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the concept that the values on each side of the equal sign much be equivalent
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Gesture-speech mismatches
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a phenomenon in which hand movements and verbal statements convey different ideas
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