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250 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Matter
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the physical material of the universe
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elements
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elementary substances
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atoms
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infinitesimally small building blocks of matter
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molecules
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combinations of atoms
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gas
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no fixed shape or volume
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liquid
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distinct volume independent of container but no specific shape
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solid
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definite shape and volume; rigid
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pure substance
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matter that has a fixed composition and distinct properties
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elements
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substances that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances
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compounds
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compsed of 2 or more elements
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mixtures
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combinations of two or more substances in which each suvstance retains its own chemical identity and hence its own properties
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law of constant composition (a.k.a. law of definite proportions)
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The observation that the elemental composition of a pure compound is always the same
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chemical properties
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descrive the way a suvstance may change or react to form other substances.
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intensive properties
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do not depend on the amount of the sample being examined
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extensive properties
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depend on the quantity of the sample and include measurements of mass and volume.
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physical changes
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a substance changes its physical appearance but not its composition.
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chemical changes
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a substance is transformed into a chemically different substance.
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Mass
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a measure of the amount of material in an object
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Kelvin
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Celcuis + 273.15
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Density
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the amount of mass in a unit volume of a substance. (mass/volume)
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dimensional analysis
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aid in problem solving. carry units through all calculations.
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conversion factor
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fraction whose numerator and denominator are the same quantity expressed in different untis.
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Law of Electrostatic Attraction
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like charges repel one another, unlike charges attract
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cathode rays
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radiation that originates from the negative electrode, or cathode
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radioactivity
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the spontaneous emission or radiation
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atomic mass unit (amu)
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used to measure the masses of atoms
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angstrom
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non-SI unit of length usded to express atomic dimensions
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isotopes
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atoms of a given element sthat differ in the number of neutrons, and consequently in mass
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atomic number
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the number of protons. shown by the subscript
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mass number
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the total number of protons plus neutrons in an atom. shown by superscript
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atomic number
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the number of protons. shown by the subscript
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nuclide
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an atom of a specific isotope
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mass number
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total number of protons and neutrons in an atom. shown by the superscript
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group
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elements in a column of the periodic table
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metallic elements
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all teh elements on the left side and in teh middle of the periodic table (except for hydrogen)
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nonmetallic elements
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separated by a diagonal steplike line that fruns from boron to astatine. (includes Hydrogen)
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metalloids
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elements that lie along the line that separates metals from nonmetals and have properties that fall between the two
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molecule
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an assembly of two or more atoms tightly bound together
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molecular compounds
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compounds that are composed of molecules
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empirical formulas
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chemical formulas that give only the relative number of atoms of each type in a molecule
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molecular formulas
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chemical formulas that indicate the actual numbers and types of atoms in a molecule
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ion
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a charged particle formed by removing or adding an electrom to a neutral atom
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cation
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ion with a positive charge
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anion
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ion with a negative charge
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polyatomic ions
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ions that consist of atoms joined as in a molecule, but have a net poitive or negative charge
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ionic compound
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a compound that contains positively charged ions and negatively charged ions
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oxyanions
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polyatomic anions containing oxygen, having names that end in -ate or -ite
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oxyanions
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polyatomic anions containing oxygen, having names that end in -ate or -ite
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Law of conservation of mass
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atoms are neither created nor destroyed during any chemical reaction
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stoichiometry
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the examination of the quantitative nature of chemical formulas and chemical reactions
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reactants
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the chemical formulas on the left of the arrow
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products
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the substances produce in the reaction, on the right of the arrow
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combustion reactions
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rapid reactions that produce a flame
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combination reactions
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two or more substances react to form one product
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decomposition reaction
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on substance undergoes a reaction to produce two or more other substances
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formula weight
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the sum of the atomic weights of each atom in its chemical formula
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Avogadro's number
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6.022E23
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molar mass
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the mass in grams of 1 mol of substance. always numerically equal to its formula weight(in amu)
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limiting reactant/reagent
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the reactant that is completely consumed in a reaction
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theoretical yeild
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the quantity of product that is calculated to form when all of the limiting reactant reacts
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percent yeild
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relates the actual yield to the theoretical yield
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aqueous solutions
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solutions in which water is the dissolving medium
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solvent
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component that is present in greater quantity in a solution
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solute
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substance that dissolves in the solvent
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electrolyte
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a substance whose aqueous solutions contain ions and conduct electricity
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nonelectrolyte
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a substance that does not form ions in solution
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strong electrolytes
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Essentially all ionic compounds and a few molecular compounds that exist in solution almost entirely as ions
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weak electrolytes
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molecular compounds that produce a small concentration of ions when they dissolve
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chemical eqiulibrium
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a state of dynamic balance in which the rate of formation of the products of a reaction from the reactants equals the rate of formation of the reactants from the products
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precipitation reactions
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reactions that result in the formatino of an insoluble product
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precipitate
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an insoluble solid formed by a reaction in solution
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solubility
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the amount of a substance that can be dissolved in a given quantity of solvent
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exchange/metathesis reactions
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reactions in which positive ions and negative ions appear to exchange partners
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molecular equation
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an equation that shows the complete chemical formulas of the reactants and products
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complete ionic equation
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an equation written so that all soluble strong electrolytes shown as ions
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spectator ions
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appear in identical forms among both the reactants and products of a complete ionic equation
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net ionic equation
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when spectator ions are ommietd from a complete ionic equation
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acids
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substances that are able to ionize in aqueous solutions ot form a hydrogen ion and thereby increase the concentration of H+ ions
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bases
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substances that accept H+ ions
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Strong acids and bases
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acids and bases that are strong electrolytes
acids: HCL, HBr, HI, HClO3, HClO4, HNO3, H2SO4 bases: LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH, Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2 |
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weak acids and bases
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acids and bases that are weak electrolytes
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neutralization reaction
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when a solution of an acid and that of a base are mixed
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oxidation
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loss of electrons by a substance
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reduction
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gain of electrons by a substance
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displacement reactions
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the ion in solution is displaced or replaced through oxidation of an element
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molarity
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moles of solute in a liter of solution
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dilution
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process of lowering concentrations by addiing water
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standard solution
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a second solution of known concentration in a titratino reaction
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titration
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using a standard solution that undergoes a specific chmical reaction of known stoichiometry with the solution of unknown concentration.
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thermodynamics
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the study of energy and its transformations
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kinetic energy
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the energy of motion
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potential energy
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"stored" energy that results from teh attractions and repulsions an object experiences in relation to other objects
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calorie
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originally defined as teh amount of energy jrequired to raise the temperatuire of 1g of water 1 degree.
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system
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the portion of the universe we single out for study
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surroundings
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everything not included by the system
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closed system
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can exchanged energy but not matter with its surroundings
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force
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any push or pull exerted on an object
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work
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energy used to cause an object to move against a force
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heat
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the energy transfeerred from a hotter object to a colder one
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energy
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the capacity to do work or to transfer heat
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First law of thermodynamics
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energy can be neither created nor destroyed: energy is conserved
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internal energy
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the sum of all the kinetic an potential energy of all the components of the system
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endothermic
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when a process occurs in which the system absorbs heat
(heat flows into the system from its surroundings) |
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exothermic
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a process that results in teh evolution of heat
(heat flows out of hte system and into its surroundings) |
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state function
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the internal energy of a system
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enthalpy
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deals with the heat absorbed or released under constant pressure. a state function
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enthalpy of reaction
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the enthalpy change that accompanies a reaction
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calorimetry
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the mearurement of heat flow
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heat capacity
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the amount of heat required by an object to raise its temperature by 1 K
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molar heat capacity
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the heat capacity of 1 mol of a substance
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specific heat
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the heat capacity of 1g of a substance
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bomb calorimeter
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measures combustion reactions
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Hess's Law
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if a reaciton is carried out in a series of steps, delta H for the reaction will be equal to the sum of the enthalpy changes for the individual steps
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enthalpy of formation
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the enthalpy change associated with the formation of a compound from its constituent elements
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standard enthalpy
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the enthalpy change when all reactants and products are in their standard states.
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standard enthalpy of formation
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the change in enthalpy for the reaction that froms 1 mol of the compound from its elements, with all substances in their standard states.
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fuel value
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the energy released when 1 g of material is combusted
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renewable energy
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energy sources that are essentially inexhaustible
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electronic structure
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the arrangement of electrons in an atom
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electromagnetic radiation
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carries energy through space and is therefore also known as radiant energy
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wavelength
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the distance between successive peaks
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frequency
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the number of complete wavelengths, or cycles, that pass a given point in 1 s
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quantum
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the smallest quantity of energy that can be emitted or absorbed as electromagnetic radiation
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photon
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each energy packet behaves like a tiny particle of light
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spectrum
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when radiation from such sources is separated into its different wavelength components
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continuous spectrum
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rainbow contianing light of all wavelengths
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line spectrum
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a spectrum containig radiation of only specific wavelengths
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ground state
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the lowest energy state of an atom
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excited state
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when the electron is in a higher energy orbit
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momentum
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the quantity mv for any object
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matter waves
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the wave characteristics of material particles
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uncertainty principle
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the dual nature of matter places a fundamental limitation on how precisely we can know botht hte location and the momentum of any object
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wave functions
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a series of mathematical functions from solving schrodinger's equation
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probaility density
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the square of the wave function at a agiven point in space represents the probability that the electron will be found at that location
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orbitals
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the complete solution to schrodinger's equation for the hydrogen atom yeilding a set of wave functions and corresponding energies.
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nodes
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the intermediate regions where the wave function squared goes to zero
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effective nuclear charge
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the net positive charge attracting the electron
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screening effect
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the inner electrons shielding the outer electron from the full charge of the nucleus
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degenerate
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orbitals with the same energy
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electron spin
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an intrinsic property of electrons
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Pauli exclusion principle
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no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers
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Hund's rule
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for degenerate orbitals, the lowest energy is attained when the number of electrons with the same spin is maximized
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valence electrons
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outer-shell electrons
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core electrons
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inner-shell electrons
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transition elements/metals
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fourth row of the periodic table
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lanthanide elements
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the 14 elements corresponding to the filling of the 4f orbitals
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actinide elements
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the 5f orbital elements
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bonding atomic radius
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an atomic radius, based on teh distances separating atoms when they are chemically bonded to one another
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ionization energy
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the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the ground state of the isolated gaseous atom or ion
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electron affinity
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the energy change that occurs when an electron is added to a gaseous atom
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alkali metals
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group 1A
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alkaline earth metals
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group 2A
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halogens
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group 7A
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noble gases
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group 8A
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Chemical bond
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atoms or ions strongly attached to one another
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ionic bond
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electrostatic forces that exist between ions of opposite charge
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covalent bond
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the sharing of electrons between two atoms
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metallic bonds
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found in metals such as copper, iron, and aluminium. each atom is bonded to several neighboring atoms
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octet rule
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atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons until they are surrounded by eight valence electrons
(exceptions: B[less than] and P[more than]) |
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lattice energy
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the energy required to completely separate a mole of a solid ionic compound into its gaseous ions
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isoelectronic series
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the ions possess the same number of electrons
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single bond
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sharing of a pair of electrons
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double bond
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sharing of 2 electon pairs
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triple bond
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sharing of 3 electron pairs. unstable
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polar covalent bond
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one of the atoms exerts a greater attraction for the bonding electrons than the other
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electronegativity
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the ability of an atome in a molecule to attract electrons to itself
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polar molecule
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a molecule in which the centers of positive and negative charge do not coincide
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dipole
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whenever two electrical charged of equal magnitude but opposite sign are separated by a distance
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dipole moment
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quantitative measure of the magnitude fo a dipole
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formal charge
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the charge of an atom in a molecule would have if all atoms had the same electronegativity
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resonance structures
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equivalent Lewis structures
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bond enthalpy
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the enthalpy change for the breaking of a particular bond in a mole of gaseous substance
(always positive) |
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bond length
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the distance between the nuclei of the atoms involved in the bond
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bond angles
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the angels made by the lines joining the nuclei of the atoms in the molecule
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VSEPR model
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valence-shell electron-pair repulsion model
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electron-domain geometry
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the arrangement of electron domains about the central atom of a molecule
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molecular geometry
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the arrangement of the atoms in space
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hybrid orbitals
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orbitals formed by mixing two or more atomic orbitals on an atom
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sigma bonds
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a covalent bond in which electron density is concentrated along the internuclear axis
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pi bond
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a covalent bond in which electron density is concentrated above and below the line joining the bonded atoms
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bonding molecular orbital
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the lower-energy concentrates electron density between the two hydrogen nuclei
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antibonding molecular orbital
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the higher MO has very little electron density between the nuclei
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sigma molecular orbitals
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a molecular orbital that centers the electron density about an imaginary line passing through two nuclei
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pi molecular orbitals
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a molecular orbital that concentrates the electron density on opposite sides of a line that passes through the nuclei
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paramagnetism
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the more unpaired electrons in a species, the strongert he force of attraction
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diamagnetism
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substances with no unparied electrons are weakly repelled from a magnetic field
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standard atmospheric pressure
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the typical pressure at sea level
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Boyle's law
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the volume of a fixed quantity of gas maintained at constant temperature is inversely proportional to the pressure
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Charle's law
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the volume of a fixed amount of gas maintained at constant pressure is directly proportional to its absolute temperature
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Avogadro's hypothesis
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equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure conatin equal numbers of molecules
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Avogadro's law
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the volume of a fas maintained at constant temperature and pressure is directly proportional to the number of moles of the gase
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Dalton's law of partial pressures
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the total pressure of a mixture of gases equals the sum of hte pressures that each would exert if it were present alone
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partial pressure
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the pressure exerted by a particular component of a mixture of gases
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kinetic-molecular theory
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1)Gases consist of large numbers of molecules that are in continuous, random motion.
2)The volume of all the molecules of hte gas is negligible compared to the total volume in which the gas is contained. 3)attractive and repulsive forces between gas molecules are ngligible 4)Energy can be transferred between m olecules during collisions, but the average kinetic energy of the molecules does not change with time, as long as the temperature of the gas remains constant. 5)The average kinetic energy of the molecules is proportional to the absolute temperature. |
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effusion
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the escape of gas molecules through a tiny hole into an evacuated space
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diffusion
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the spread of one substance throughout a space or throughout a second substance.
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mean free path
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the average distance traveled by a molecule between collisions
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intermolecular forces
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the forces that exist between molecules
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dipole-dipole force
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exists between neutral polar molecules
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london dispersion force
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intermolecular forces resulting from attractions between induced dipoles
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ion-dipole force
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exists between an ion and the partial charge on teh end of a polar molecule
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polarizability
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the ease with which the charge distribution in amolecule can be distorted by an external electric field
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hydrogen bonding
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a special type of intermolecular attraction that exists between the hydrogen atom in a polar bond and an unshared electron pair on a nearby small electronegative ion or atom.
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viscosity
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the resistance of liquid to flow
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surface tension
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the energy required to increase the surface area of a liquid by a unit amount
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capillary action
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the rise of liquids up very narrow tubes
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heat of fusion
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the enthalpy change associated wiht melting a solid
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heat of vaporization
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the heat needed for the vaporization of a liquid
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critical temperature
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the highest temperature at which a substance can exist as a liquid
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critical pressure
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the pressure required to bring about liquefaction at this critical temperature
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dynamic equilibrium
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the condition in which two opposing processes are occurring simultaneously at equal rates
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volatile
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liquids that evaporate readily
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normal boiling point
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the boliling point of a liquid at 1 atm of pressure
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triple point
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where the three curves intersect on a phase diagram
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crystalline solid
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a solid whose atoms, ions, or molecules are ordered in well-defined arrangements
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amorphous solid
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a solid whose particles have no orderly structure
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unti cell
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the smallest portion of a crystal that reproduces the structure of the entire crystal when repeated in different directions in space.
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crystal lattice
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an imaginary network of points on which the repeating unit of the structure of a solid may be imagined to be laid down so that the structure of the crystal is obtained.
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primitive cubic
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when lattice points are at the corners only
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body-centered cubic
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when a lattice point also occurs at the center of the unit cell
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face-centered cubic
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lattice points at the center of each face, as well as at each corner
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hexagonal close packing
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if the spheres of the third layer are placed in line with those of the first layer
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cubic close packing
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the spheres of the third layer are placed in slightly different positions so that they do not sit above the spheres in teh first layer
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coordination number
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the number of particles immediately surrounding a particle in the crystal structure.
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molecular solids
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consist of atoms or molecules held together by intermolecular forces
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covalent-network solids
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consist of atoms held together in large networks or chains by covalent bonds.
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ionic solids
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consist of ions held together by ionic bonds
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metallic solids
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consist entirely of metal atoms
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liquid crystal
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a substance that exhibits one or more partially ordered liquid phases above the melting point of the solid form.
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nematic liquid-crystalline phase
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molecules are aligned along their long axes, but there is no ordering with respect to the ends of the molecules
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smectic liquid-crystalline phases
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molecules exhibit additional ordering beyond that of the nematic phase
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cholesteric liqui-crystalline phase
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molecules are aligned along their long axes as in nematic liquid crystals but are arranged in layers with the molecules in each plane twiseted slightly in relation to th e moelcules in the planes above and below
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polymer
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molecular substances of high moleculer mass formed by the polymerization of monomers
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monomer
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molecules with low molecular mass
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condensatiton polymerization
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polymerization in which molecules are joinded together through condensation reactions
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condensatino reaction
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two molecules are joined to form a larger molecule by elimination of a small molecule such as H2O
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copolymers
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polymers formed from two different monomers
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thermoplastic
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can be reshaped
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thermosetting plastic
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shaped through irreversible chemical processes and therefore cannot be reshaped readily
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cross-linking
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forming bonds between chains
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vulcanization
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cross-linking of natural rubber
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biomaterial
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any material that has a biomedical application
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cermaics
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inorganic, nonmetallic, solid materials
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sol-gel process
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important method of forming extremely fine particles of uniform size
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composite
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complex mixture of two or more materials
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superconductivity
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frictionless flow of electrons
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superconducting transition temperature
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temperature below which superconductivity may take place
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vacuum deposition
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used to form thin films of suvstances that can be vaporized or evaporated without destroying their chemical identities
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sputtering
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involves the use of high voltage to remove materila from a source, or target
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chemical-vapor deposition
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surface is coasted with a volatile, stable chemical compound at a teperature below the melting point of the surface. then undergoes some form of chemical raction to form a stable, adherent coat.
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