Chapter 7 Psychology Thinking, Language And Intelligence

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thinking

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brain activity in which we mentally manipulate information, including words, visual images, sounds, or other data.

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mental images

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Representations in the mind of an object or event

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concept

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A mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people.

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prototypes

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Typical, highly representative examples of a concept.

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algorithm

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A rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem.

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heuristic

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A thinking strategy that may lead us to a solution to a problem or decision, but—unlike algorithms—may sometimes lead to errors.

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Kinds of Problems

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arrangement, inducing structure, and transformation

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Arrangement problems

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require the problem solver to rearrange or recombine elements in a way that will satisfy a certain criterion

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problems of inducing structure

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person must identify the existing relationships among the elements presented and then construct a new relationship among them

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problems of inducing structure

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person must identify the existing relationships among the elements presented and then construct a new relationship among them

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means-ends analysis

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Involves repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists.

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Forming Subgoals

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Another heuristic commonly used to generate solutions is to divide a problem into intermediate steps, or subgoals, and solve each of those steps.

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Insight:

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A sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be independent of one another.

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Wolfgang Köhler

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discovered insight

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functional fixedness

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The tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use

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mental set

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The tendency to approach a problem in a certain way because that method worked previously.

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confirmation bias

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The tendency to find and apply information that supports one’s initial solution or idea and to ignore information that does not support it.

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creativity

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The ability to generate original ideas or solve problems in novel ways.

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divergent thinking

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Thinking that generates unusual, yet nonetheless apropriate, responses to problems or questions.

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convergent thinking

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Thinking in which a problem is viewed as having a single answer and which produces responses that are based primarily on knowledge and logic.

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grammar

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The system of rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed.

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phonology

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The study of the smallest units of speech, called phonemes.

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phonemes

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The smallest units of speech.

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syntax

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Ways in which words and phrases can be combined to form sentences.

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semantics

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The meanings of words and sentence

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babble

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Meaningless speech-like sounds made by children from around the age of 3 months through 1 year.

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telegraphic speech

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Sentences in which only essential words are used.

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overgeneralization

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The phenomenon by which children over-apply a language rule, thereby making a linguistic error.

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learning-theory approach (to language development)

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The theory that language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning.

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Noam Chomsky

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linguist nativist approach (to language development)

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nativist approach (to language development)

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The theory that humans are biologically pre-wired to learn language at certain times and in particular ways.

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interactionist approach

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he view that language development is produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances that help teach language.

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linguistic-relativity hypothesis

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The hypothesis that language shapes and may determine the way people perceive and understand the world.

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intelligence

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The capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges

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g or g-factor

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The single, general factor for mental ability assumed to underlie intelligence in some early theories of intelligence

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crystallized intelligence

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The accumulation of information, knowledge, and skills that people have learned through experience and education.

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theory of multiple intelligences

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Gardner’s intelligence theory that proposes that there are eight distinct spheres of intelligence.

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Howard Gardner

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theory of multiple intelligences

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Robert Sternberg

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practical intelligence

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emotional intelligence

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The set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions.

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intelligence tests

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Tests devised to quantify a person’s level of intelligence.

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mental age

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The age for which a given level of performance is average or typical.

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Alfred Bennit

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created original intelligence test

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intelligence quotient (IQ)

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A measure of intelligence that takes into account an individual’s mental and chronological ages.

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reliability

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The property by which tests measure consistently what they are trying to measure

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validity

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The property by which tests actually measure what they are supposed to measure.

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validity

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The property by which tests actually measure what they are supposed to measure

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norms

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Standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person’s score on a test with the scores of other individuals who have taken the same test.

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intellectual disability (or mental retardation)

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A condition characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills

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fetal alcohol syndrome

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The most common cause of intellectual disability in newborns, occurring when the mother uses alcohol during pregnancy.

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familial retardation

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Intellectual disability in which no apparent biological defect exists but there is a history of it in the family

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intellectually gifted

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The 2%–4% segment of the population who have IQ scores greater than 130.

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culture-fair IQ test

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A test trial that does not discriminate against the members of any minority group.

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heritability

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A measure of the degree to which a characteristic is related to genetic, inherited factors.