Chapter 3 Consciousness And The Two-Track Mind

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3-1: What is the place of consciousness in psychology's history?

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Since 1960, under the influence of cognitive psychology and neuroscience, consciousness (our awareness of ourselves and our environment) has resumed its place as an important area of research. After initially claiming consciousness as its area of study in the nineteenth century, psychologists had abandoned it in the first half of the twentieth century, turning instead to the study of observable behavior because they believed consciousness was too difficult to study scientifically.

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3-2: What is the "dual-processing" being revealed by today's cognitive neuroscience?

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Cognitive neuroscience and others studying the brain mechanisms underlying consciousness and cognition that the mind processes information on two separate tracks, one operating at an explicit, conscious level and the other at an implicit, unconscious level. This dual processing affects our perception, memory, attitudes, and other conditions.

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3-3: How much information to we consciously attend to at once?

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We selectively attend to, and process, a very limited portion of incoming information, blocking out much and often shifting the spotlight of our attention from one thing to another. Focused intently on one task, we often display inattentional blindness to other events and changes around us.

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3-4: How do our biological rhythms influence our daily functioning?

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Our bodies have an internal biological clock, roughly synchronized with the 24-hour cycle of night and day. This circadian rhythm appears in our daily patterns of body temperature, arousal, sleeping, and waking. Age and experiences can alter these patterns, resetting our biological clock.

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3-5: What is the biological rhythm of our sleeping and dreaming stage?

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We cycle through four distinct sleep stages about every 90 minutes. Leaving the alpha waves of the awake, relaxed stage, we descend into the irregular brain waves of non-REM stage 1 sleep (NREM-1), often with the sensation of falling or floating. NREM-2 sleep (in which we spend the most time) follows, lasting 20 minutes, with its characteristic sleep spindles. We then enter NREM-3 sleep, lasting about 30 minutes, with large, slow delta waves.

About one hour after falling asleep, we begin periods REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. Most dreaming occurs in this stage (also known as paradoxical sleep) of internal arousal but outward paralysis. During a normal night's sleep, NREM-3 sleep shortens and REM and NREM-2 sleep lengthens.

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3-6: How do biology and environment interact in our sleep patterns?

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Biology- our circadian rhythm as well as our age and our body's production of melatonin (influenced by the brain's suprachiasmatic nucleus) -interacts with cultural expectations and individual behaviors to determine our sleeping and waking patterns.

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3-7: What are sleep's functions?

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Sleep may have played a protective role in human evolution by keeping people safe during potentially dangerous periods. Sleep also helps restore and repair damaged neurons. REM and NREM-2 sleep help strengthen neural connections that build enduring memories. Sleep promotes creative problem solving the next day, and, finally, during slow-wave sleep, the pituitary gland secrets human growth hormone, which is necessary for muscle development.

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3-8: How does sleep loss affect us and what are the major sleep disorders?

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Sleep deprivation causes fatigue and irritability, and it impairs concentration, productivity, and memory consolidation. It can also lead to depression, obesity, joint pain, a suppressed immune system, and slowed performance (with greater vulnerability to accidents).

Sleep disorders include insomnia (recurring wakefulness); narcolepsy (sudden uncontrollable sleepiness or lapsing into REM sleep); sleep apnea (the stopping of breathing while asleep; associated with obesity, especially in men); night terrors (high arousal and the apperance of being terrified; NREM-3 disorder found mainly in children); sleep-walking (NREM-3 disorder also found mainly in children); and sleep talking.

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3-9: What do we dream?

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We usually dream of ordinary events and everyday experiences, most involving some anxiety or misfortune. Fewer than 10 percent (and less among women) of dreams have any sexual content. Most dreams occur during REM sleep; those that happen during NREM sleep tend to be vague fleeting images.

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3-10: What are the functions of dreams?

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There are five major views of the function of dreams. (1) Freud's wish-fulfillment: Dreams provide a psychic "safety valve," with manifest content (story line) acting as a censored version of latent content (underlying meaning that gratifies our unconscious wishes). (2) Information-processing: Dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate them in memory. (3) Psychological function: Regular brain stimulation may help develop and preserve neural pathways in the brain. (4) Neural activation: The brain attempts to make sense of neural static by weaving it into a story line. (5) Cognitive development: Dreams reflect the dreamer's level of development.

Most sleep theorists agree that REM sleep and its associated dreams serve an important function, as shown by the REM rebound that occurs following REM deprivation in humans and other species.

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3-11: What is hypnosis, and what powers does a hypnotist have over a hypnotized subject?

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Hypnosis is a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.

Hypnosis does not enhance recall of forgotten events (it may even evoke false memories). It cannot force people to act against their will, though hypnotized people, like unhypnotized people, may perform unlikely acts. Posthypnotic suggestions have helped people harness their own healing powers but have not been very effective in treating addiction. Hypnosis can help relieve pain.

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3-12: Is hypnosis and extension of normal consciousness or an altered state?

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Many psychologists believe that hypnosis is a form of normal social influence and that hypnotized people act out of the role "good subject" by following directions given by an authoritative person. Other psychologists view hypnosis as a dissociation- a split between normal sensations and conscious awareness. Selective attention may also contribute by blocking attention to certain stimuli.

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3-13: What are tolerance, dependence, and addiction; and what are some common misconceptions about addiction?

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Psychoactive drugs alter perceptions and moods. They may produce tolerance, a diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, thus requiring larger doses to achieve the desired effect, and may lead to physical or psychological dependence.

Addiction is compulsive drug craving and use. Three common misconceptions are that addictive drugs quickly corrupt; therapy is always required to overcome addiction; and the concept of addiction can meaningfully be extended beyond chemical dependence to a wide range of other behaviors.

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3-14: What are depressants and what are their effects?

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Depressants, such as alcohol, barbiturates, and the opiates, dampen neural activity and slow body functions. Alcohol tends to disinhibit, increasing the likelihood that we will act on our impulses, whether harmful or helpful. It also impairs judgement, disrupts memory processes by suppressing REM sleep, and reduces self-awareness and self-control. User expectations strongly influence alcohol's behavioral effects.

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3-15: What are stimulants and what are their effects?

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Stimulants- including caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, the amphetamines, methamphetamine, and Ecstacy- excite neural activity and speed up body functions, triggering energy and mood changes. All are highly addictive. Nicotine's effects make smoking a difficult habit to kick, yet the percentage of Americans who smoke has been dramatically decreasing. Cocaine gives users a fast high, following within an hour by a crash. Its risks include cardiovascular dopamine production. Ecstasy (MDMA) is a combined stimulant and mild hallucinogen that produces euphoria and feelings of intimacy. Its users risk immune system suppression, permanent damage to mood and memory, and (if taken during physical activity) dehydration and escalating body temperatures.

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3-16: What are hallucinogens, and what are their effects?

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Hallucinogens- such as LSD and marijuana- distort perceptions and evoke hallucinations- sensory images in the absence of sensory input. The user's mood and expectations influence the effects of LSD, but common experiences are hallucinations and emotions varying from euphoria to panic. Marijuana's main ingredient, THC, may trigger feelings of disinhibition, euphoria, relaxation, relief from pain, and the intense sensitivity to sensory stimuli. It may also increase feelings of depression or anxiety, impair motor coordination and reaction time, disrupt memory formation, and damage lung tissue (because of the inhaled smoke).

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3-17: Why do some people become regular users of consciousness altering drugs?

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Some people may be biologically vulnerable to particular drugs, such as alcohol. Psychological factors (such as peer pressure) combine to lead many people to experiment with- and sometimes become dependent on- drugs. Cultural and ethnic groups have differing rates of drug use. Each type of influence- biological, psychological, and social-cultural- offers a possible path for drug prevention and treatment programs.