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25 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Content Analysis
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-Analyzing symbols and messages contained in the mass media
-Systematic -Objective -Quantitative |
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Systematic
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-Content is selected according to explicit and consistently applied rules.
-Sample selection must follow proper procedures and each item must have an equal chance of being included in the analysis. |
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Objective
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-Researcher’s personal experiences/biases should not enter into the findings.
-If replicated by another researcher, the analysis should yield the same results. -Operational definitions/rules should be explicitly described for other researchers. -Sampling method, categorization technique and specification of the unit of analysis should be fully explained. |
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Quantitative
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-Researchers can accurately represent a body of messages by using numbers.
-Quantifications allows them to summarize results and report them succinctly. -Apply sampling techniques to assure that conclusions were based on representative sample. -Insists on explicit rules for measurement to achieve objectivity and facilitation communication. -Use quantification and statistical techniques to describe the results and find relationships. |
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Uses of Content Analysis
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-Describing Communication Content
-Cataloging characteristics of media content at one or more points in time -Testing Hypotheses of Message Characteristics -Attempts to relate certain characterstics of the source of a media message content to the characteristics of the messages that are produced. Comparing Media Content to the “Real World” -Reality check in which the portrayal of a certain group, phenomenon, trait, or characteristic is assessed against a standard taken from real life. -Assessing the Image of Particular Groups in Society -Assess changes in media policy towards groups, to make inferences about the media’s responsiveness to demands for better coverage, or to document social trends. |
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Limitations of Content Analysis
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-Cannot serve as sole basis for making statements about the effects of content on an audience
-Findings limited to particular study’s framework -May lack enough “content” to analyze |
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Steps of Content Analysis
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Formulate the research question or hypothesis
Define the population in question Select an appropriate sample from the population Select and define a unit of analysis Construct the categories of content to be analyzed Establish a quantification system Train coders and conduct a pilot study Code the content according to established definitions Analyze the collected data Draw conclusions and search for indications |
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Research Questions/ Methods
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-Content analyses should be guided by well-formulated research questions or hypotheses.
-A basic review of the literature is a required step -The source for hypotheses are the same as for other areas of media research -Possible to generate a research question based on existing theory, prior research, or practical problems, or as a response to changing social conditions. |
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Defining the Population
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-Specify the boundaries of the body of content (media) to be considered
-Requires an appropriate operational definition of the relevant population Example: if researcher’s are interested in analyzing the content of popular songs, they must define what is meant by a “popular song.” -Have to Specify time period |
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Sampling
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-Assembling a representative sample of adequate size to allow for statistically sound conclusions
-Census – can sample all data in the defined population -If too much – use a form of multi-stage sampling (E.g., regions – newspapers within regions – publication dates within newspapers) |
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What to watch for when Sampling
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Differences in the level of availability of media content
(e.g., newspaper vs. broadcast news; The New York Times vs. local newspapers) Periodicity: Time-bound cycles in media content (e.g., newspapers on different days of the week – Sunday vs. Monday) Monday skinniest newspaper Sunday is biggest– Confounding variable |
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Time Periods
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If goal of sampling news coverage of the 2008 election, then time period is set
Sampling period defined by story If goal is to look at changes in media image of Pres. Bush during the 2004 election, then can look at a sample of the media coverage prior to, during, and following this story Have to determine what editions of publications and newspapers to look at, as well as which TV programs to select for analysis Use sampling techniques |
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Stratification of Time Period
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Stratify sample by week of month and by day of the week
No more than 2 days from one week can be chosen to ensure a balanced distribution across the month Composite week E.g., a study might use a sample of one Monday (drawn at random from the 4 or 5 possible Mondays in the month), one Tuesday etc., until all weekdays have been included The number of dates needed is a function of the incidence of the phenomenon in question: the lower the incidence, the more dates must be sampled. |
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Selecting a unit of analysis
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Sampling unit and unit of analysis usually not the same
E.g., television programs (sampling unit), TV character (unit of analysis) A unit of analysis is the thing that possesses the variables that you are interested in or investigating TV characters possess such variables as gender, occupation, status and aggressiveness Operational definitions of units of analysis need to be specific and clear E.g., if looking at ads – will you be looking at full page, color ads, or, at least half page ads or bigger? |
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Constructing Content Categories
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Explicit operational definitions of key variables
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Coding of Nominal Variables
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Exhaustive
Mutually exclusive Reliability |
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Exhaustive
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all units of measure must go into some category
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Mutually exclusive
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all units must go in only one category
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Reliability
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different coders should agree in a great majority of instances about the proper category for each unit of analysis
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Measurement
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Counts: Often coding amounts to counting instances within units of analysis.
Depends on careful definitions of things to be counted Counts yield data at the ratio level of measurement. |
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Ratings
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Rating units along a scale to indicate such things as level of violence or amount of violence.
Rules for doing this must be explicit as those for categories, Resulting data can be at the interval or ratio level of measurement. |
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Coding the Content
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Coding sheets used to facilitate coding
Coder will complete a sheet for each unit of analysis Has place for coder to mark answer |
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Analyzing Data
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Descriptive statistics good for content analysis
Percentages, means, modes & medians Use inferential statistics for testing hypotheses Nominal data Use Chi-sqaure tests Ratio or interval data Use t-tests, ANOVA, or Pearson’s r |
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Interpreting Data
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Interpreting
Hypotheses will either be supported or not by inferential tests May need benchmark for nominal data. Have to determine what the data means |
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Reliability
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Reliability Check
To ensure data are meaningful and objective Essential to demonstrate that different coders usually make the same decisions Intercoder reliability Percentage of agreement between coders Not every content analysis will have more than 1 coder If more than one coder, should conduct reality check Holsti Scott |
