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278 Cards in this Set
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anatomy
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the study of structure
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physiology
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the study of body function
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Herophilus (300 BC)
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First scientist to publicly dissect human bodies, "Father of Anatomy"
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da Vinci (1452-1519)
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performed dissections to improve his drawing and painting techniques
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Vesalius (1500s)
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taught medical students around the operating and dissecting table
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structural organization of body
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chemical level < cellular level < tissue level < organ level < organ system level < organismal level
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anatomical position
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standing, eyes level, palms face anterior
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saggital plane
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separate left and right halves
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coronal plane
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separate anterior from posterior
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transverse plane
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separate superior and inferior
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oblique plane
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passing at an angle
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anterior
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closer to the front
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posterior
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closer to the back
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dorsal
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back side
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ventral
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belly side
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superior
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closer to the head
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inferior
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closer to the feet
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cranial
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head end
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caudal
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tail or rear end
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medial
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towards the midline
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lateral
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away from the midline
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superficial
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on the outside
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deep
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on the inside
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proximal
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closer to the point of attachment
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distal
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farther from the point of attachment
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Right Upper Quadrant (stomach)
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liver, gallbladder
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Left Upper Quadrant (stomach)
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stomach
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Right Lower Quadrant (stomach)
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intestines, bladder, appendix
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Left Lower Quadrant (stomach)
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intestines, bladder
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abdominal region
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region inferior to the thorax (chest) and superior to the hip bones
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antebrachial region
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forearm (between the elbow and wrist)
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antecubital region
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region anterior to the elbow
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auricular region
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ear
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axillary region
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armpit
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brachial region
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arm (shoulder to elbow)
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buccal region
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cheek
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calcaneal region
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heel of the foot
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carpal region
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wrist
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cephalic region
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head
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cervical region
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neck
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coxal region
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hip
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cranial region
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skull
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crural region
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leg (between knee and ankle)
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deltoid region
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shoulder
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digital region
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fingers and toes
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dorsal region
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back
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femoral region
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thigh
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fibular region
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lateral aspect of the leg
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frontal region
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forehead
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gluteal region
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buttock
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hallux region
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great toe
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inguinal region
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groin (crease in the junction of the thigh with the trunk)
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lumbar region
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relating to the loins, or part of the back and sides between the rib and pelvis
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mammary region
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breast
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manus region
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hand
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mental region
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chin
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nasal region
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nose
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occipital region
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posterior aspect of the head
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olecranal region
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posterior of the elbow
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oral region
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mouth
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orbital region
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eye
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palmar region
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palm of the hand
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patellar region
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knee cap
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pelvic region
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pelvis
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perineal region
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diamond-shaped region btwn the thighs that contains the anus and selected external reproductive organs
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pes region
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foot
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plantar region
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sole of the foot
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pollex region
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thumb
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popliteal region
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area posterior to the knee
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pubic region
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anterior region of the pelvis
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radial region
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lateral aspect of the forearm
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sacral region
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posterior region btwn the hip bones
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scapular region
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shoulder blade
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sternal region
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anterior middle region of the thorax
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sural region
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calf (posterior part of the leg)
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tarsal region
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root of the foot
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thoracic region
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chest or thorax
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tibial region
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medial aspect of the leg
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ulnar region
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medial aspect of the forearm
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umbilical region
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navel
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vertebral region
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spinal column
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cranial cavity
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formed by cranium; houses brain
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vertebral canal
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formed by vertebral column; contains spinal cord
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thoracic cavity
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chest cavity; bordered anteriorly and laterally by chest wall and inferiorly by diaphragm
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mediastinum (thoracic cavity)
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contains the pericardial cavity, thymus, trachea, esophagus, and major blood vessels
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pericardial (thoracic cavity)
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contains the heart
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pericardium (serous membrane)
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pleural (thoracic cavity)
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contains the lungs
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pleura (serous membrane)
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abdominal cavity
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associated with the abdominal viscera, including stomach, spleen, liver, pancreas, small intestine, most of large intestine, kidneys, ureter
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peritoneum (serous membrane)
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pelvic cavity
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associated with the pelvic viscera, including urinary bladder and urethra, internal reproductive organs, some of large intestine
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peritoneum (serous membrane)
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ventral cavity
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thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity
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divided by diaphragm
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cranial cavity
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where the brain lies
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vertebral canal
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where spinal chord lies
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Serous Membranes
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consists of a continuous two-layered sack (visceral layer covers organs) (parietal layer lines the body cavity)
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Serous Fluid
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between visceral and parietal layers; reduces friction caused by moving organs
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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
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best for soft structures
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Radiography
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x-rays; best for hard structures (bone)
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computed tomography (CT scan or CAT scan)
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computer puts together x-ray images from many angles
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sonography
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ultrasound
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angiography
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visualizes blood vessels
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positron emission tomography (PET)
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creates a functional map of an organ
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Prenatal Period
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first 38 weeks of human development
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Pre-embryonic period
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weeks 1-2. Zygote becomes a spherical, multicellular structure (blastocyte). Ends when blastocyt implants in lining of the uterus
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Embryonic period
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weeks 3-8. rudimentary versions of the major organ systems appear in the body (embryo)
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Fetal period
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weeks 9-38. fetus continues to grow and its organs increase in complexity
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Blastocyst
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baby pre-embryo. The inner cell mass becomes the embryo. The trophoblast becomes the fetal half of placenta
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the start of a baby...
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fertilization - zygote - cleavage - morula - early blastocyst - late blastocyst
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trophoblast
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two layers: cytotrophoblast (inner) and syncytiotrophoblast (outer). These layers help form the chorion, which creates the fetal part of the placenta
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Forming the Bilaminar Disc
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Inner Cell Mass divides into two sheets of cells (epiblast and hypoblast). Epiblast forms embryo and amnion. Hypoblast forms the yolk sac.
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formation of three germ layers (embryonic period)
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primitive streak appears on dorsal surface of epiblast
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gastrulation
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epiblast cells invaginate through the primitive streak towards the hypoblast
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gastrulation produces...
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a trilaminar embryonic disc that contains three primary germ layers: endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm
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more gastrulation
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amniotic cavity is where primitive streak and amnion are. the yolk sac is below endoderm. then it is mesoderm, ectoderm, then amniotic cavity!
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ectoderm
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skin and nervous tissue
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mesoderm
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muscle tissue, heart, kidneys, reproductive organs, connective tissue
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endoderm
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digestive and respiratory systems
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transverse folding (of embryo)
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left and right sides of embryo curve toward the midline; forms cylindrical trunk with endoderm most internal and ectoderm covering the exterior
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cephalocaudal folding (of embryo)
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in head and tail regions. creates future head and buttocks
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neurulation
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the notochord forms parallel and deep to primitive streak; the notochord stimulates overlying ectoderm to form the neural tube, which becomes brain and spinal cord.
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induction
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one structure influencing another structure to change form
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organogenesis
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organ development follows gastrulation and body folding; upper and lower limbs attain adult shape; most organ systems have developed by week 8
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birth defects
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3/100 babies born in US with a serious structural birth defect. causes of 50% are unknown
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teratogen
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anything that causes a birth defect
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Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
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single alcoholic binge may be teratogenic; attributes growth retardation, heart defects, microcephally; leading cause of mental retardation
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accutane
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last resort for acne; 25 percent born to mothers taking it have serious birth defects; 50 percent mentally disabled
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connective tissue
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diverse types; all contain cells, protein fibers, and ground substance. Protects, binds together, and supports organs. Mesoderm
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muscle tissue
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Contractile; receives stimulation from nervous system and/or endocrine system. Facilitates movement of skeleton or organ walls. Mesoderm.
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epithelial tissue
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cellular, polar attached, avascular, innervated, high regeneration capacity. Covers surfaces, lines insides of organs and body cavities. Ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm.
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nervous tissue
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Neurons: excitable, high metabolic rate, extreme longevity, nonmitotic. Control activities, process info. Glial cells: nonexcitable, mitotic. Support and protect neurons. Ectoderm. Brain and spinal cord.
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tight junctions (intercellular)
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continuous sealed plasma membranes near apical surface
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adhering junctions (intercellular)
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typically located deep to tight junctions
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desmosomes (intercellular)
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provide resistance at a single stress point
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gap junctions
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direct passageways for small molecules to travel between cells
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simple columnar epithelium
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Absorption, secretion, movement. inner lining of digestive tract, ciliated: uterine tubes
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stratified squamous epithelium
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protection. epidermis of skin, lining of oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, vagina, anus
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transitional epithelium
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Distention and relaxation of urinary structures. inner lining of urinary bladder
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cilia and microvilli
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hair-like modifications found on the apical side of some epithelia. (C=motile - respiratory and reproductive systems, M increase surface area - kidney tubules and small intestine)
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simple squamous epithelium
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Diffusion and filtration. Lung air sacs, lining of blood vessels, serous membranes.
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simple cuboidal epithelium
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Absorption and secretion. Thyroid gland, kidney tubules, most endocrine and exocrine glands, ovary.
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pseudostratified columnar epithelium
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Protection and movement. Respiratory tract, epididymis and male urethra
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adipose connective tissue
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fat
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dense regular connective tissue
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ligaments and tendons
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dense irregular connective tissue
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dermis of skin
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hyaline cartilage
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articular cartilage in some joints
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fluid connective tissue
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blood
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skeletal muscle
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muscles attached to bones
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cardiac muscle
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muscle layer in heart
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smooth muscle
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muscle layer in digestive tract
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exocrine glands
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ducts secrete material onto an epithelial surface
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endocrine glands
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ductless. cells secrete products into interstitial fluid and bloodstream.
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Merocrine glands (exocrine)
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Secrete via vesicles. Lacrimal, salivary, gastric, pancreatic, and eccrine sweat glands.
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Holocrine glands (exocrine)
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entire cell disintegrates. sebaceous glands
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Apocrine glands (exocrine)
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secrete by cell decapitation. mammary and apocrine sweat glands.
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common origin of all connective tissue cell types?
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mesenchyme
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functions of connective tissue
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physical protection (bone,cartilage) support and structural framework (bone) binding of structures (CT proper, cartilage) storage of calcium and fat (bone) transport of nutrients, hormones and gasses (blood) immune protection (blood)
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loose connective tissue
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areolar (surrounding vessels, nerves, etc) adipose (subuctaneous layer, surrounding organs) reticular (inside lymphatic organs)
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dense connective tissue
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regular (tendons, ligaments) irregular (dermis of skin) elastic (walls of large arteries)
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scurvy
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caused by Vitamin C deficiency. normal collagen fibers cannot form. weakening of gums, teeth, bones, and internal mucosa. wounds and fractures don't heal well.
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Marfan Syndrome
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Abnormal gene on chromosomal 15. abnormalities in fibrillin, collagen and elastin. causes skeletal, vision, cardio, and connective tissue abnormalities. Tall and thin with long legs, arms, fingers, and toes.
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gangrene
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most commonly effects limbs, fingers and toes. may be caused by lack of blood flow, mechanical injury, bacterial infection or diabetes
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Integument
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skin, nails, hair, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands. Largest organ in the body. protection, prevention of water loss, temperature regulation, metabolic regulation, immune defense, sensory receptors, excretion by means of secretion
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Epidermis
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Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. Stratums: corneum, lucidum (thick skin), granulosum, spinosum, basale (germinativum)
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keratinocytes (epidermis)
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most abundant, produce keratin, found in all layers
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epidermal dendritic cells (langerhans cells)
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macrophages in the immune response. stratum spinosum
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tactile cells (merkel cells) (of epidermis)
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sensory receptors. stratum basale
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melanocytes (of epidermis)
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produce melanin. stratum basale
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hemoglobin
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found in blood; causes pink hue in Caucasian skin
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melanin
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produced by melanocytes. UV exposure darkens existing melanin and stimulates melanocytes.
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carotene
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found in plants; yellow to orange pigment
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nevus, mole, or birthmark
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overgrowth of melanin-forming cells. harmless unless it mutates and becomes malignant
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freckles
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yellowish or brown spots from excessive melanocyte activity, not increased melanocyte cells
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hemangioma
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congenital anomaly; port-wine stains
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friction ridges
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formed by large folds and valleys of the dermis and epidermis. fingerprints. patterns are well-formed by the 4th month of fetal development
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dermis
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two layers: papillary (areolar CT) and reticular (dense irregular CT)
epidermal ridges dermal papillae |
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striae
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stretch marks. torn collagen
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wrinkles
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caused by age and UV exposure. decreased flexibility and thickness of dermis
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cleavage lines
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orientation of collage bundles
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hypodermis
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areolar and adipose connective tissue. anchors skin to underlying structures. allows skin to slide freely. larger in women than men
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nails
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scale like modification of epidermis. contains hard keratin. structures: nail matrix, lunula, cuticle, free edge
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location and function of hair
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can be found everywhere, except for on the palms, soles, lips, sides of fingers and toes, and parts of the external genitalia. protects from the sun, senses touch, reduces heat loss
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lanugo
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fine, downy hair on the fetus
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vellus
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fine hair on arms and legs
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terminal
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course hair on head and in pubic region; men's facial hair
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hair structure and growth
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consists of root and shaft. arrector pili muscle. rate of hair growth is about 2mm/wk
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alopecia
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thinning of hair
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diffuse hair loss
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shedding from all parts of the scalp
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male pattern baldness
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hair loss from crown. genetic and hormonal influences. baldness gene is dominant in males. testosterone causes terminal hair to be replaced by vellus hair.
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burns
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1st degree (damages epidermis) 2nd degree (damages epidermis and part of the dermis) 3rd degree (damages entire epidermis and dermis)
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basal cell carcinoma
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most common. least dangerous. originates in stratum basale.
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squamous cell carcinoma
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arises from keratinocytes
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malignant melanoma
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most deadly type. arises from melanocytes (usually a preexisting mole). early detection is crucial
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ABCD malignant melanoma recognition
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asymmetry. border. color. diameter.
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connective tissue
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cells surrounded by matrix network. bone, blood, cartilage, connective tissue proper
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hyaline cartilage
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most abundant type. provides support through flexibility and resilience. trachea, articular cartilage, epiphyseal plate, fetal skeleton, costal cartilage, nose.
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fibrocartilage
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contains thick collagen fibers. acts as a shock absorber. intervertebral discs, menisci of knee, pubic symphysis.
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elastic cartilage
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contains highly branched elastic fibers. provides flexibility. epiglottis and auricle of the ear.
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characteristics of cartilage
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semirigid, weaker than bone. flexible and resilient due to elastic fibers and water content. avascular (receives nutrient supply through diffusion)
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functions of cartilage
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support soft tissues. articular surfaces for joints. provide a model for endochondral bone formation
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chondroblasts
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produce matrix of cartilage
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chondrocytes
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mature cartilage cells. reside in lacunae
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extracellular matrix
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hold lacunae?
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perichondrium
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made of dense connective tissue. provides mechanical support and protection to cartilage
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bone
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osseous connective tissue. calcified extracellular matrix - calcium phosphate
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functions of bone
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support and protect, movement, hemopoiesis (red bone marrow), storage of mineral and energy reserves (calcium phosphate, yellow bone marrow)
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long bone
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contains diaphysis and epiphyses. humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpals, phalanges, femur, tibia, fibular, metatarsals
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short bone
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carpals, tarsals, semasoid bones (patella)
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flat bones
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skull, scapulae, sternum, ribs
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irregular bone
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vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx, os coxa, ethmoid, sphenoid
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metaphysis (long bone)
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contains the epiphyseal plate or line
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compact bone
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superficial bone tissue
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spongy bone
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deep bone tissue
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epiphysis
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ends of long bones
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diaphysis
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shaft of long bone
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articular cartilage (long bone)
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hyaline cartilage covering the ends of bones within a jointmed
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medullary cavity (long bone)
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contains yellow marrow in adults and red marrow in children
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endosteum (long bone)
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layer of cells lining the spongy bone
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periosteum (long bone)
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dense connective tissue outer covering of bone
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perforating fibers (long bone)
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attach the periosteum to compact bone
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nutrient foramen (long bone)
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contains nutrient artery
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osteoprogenitor cells
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stem cells derived from mesenchyme that become osteoblasts
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osteoblasts
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immature osteocytes that BUILD bone by secreting osteoid (organic part of the bone matrix). decrease blood calcium levels
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osteocytes
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mature bone cells that maintain bone matrix. reside in lacunae
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osteoclasts
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cells that CONSUME bone (bone resorption). phagocytic cells using hydrochloric acid and lysosomes. increase blood calcium levels
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compact bone
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also called cortical bone. solid, relatively dense. lined by the periosteum. found in the superficial regions of bone. contains osteons.
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spongy bone
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also called cancellous or trabecular bone. porous. lined by endosteum. found in the deeper regions of bone.
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osteon (haversian system)
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basic structural and functional unit of compact bone
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central canal (haversian canal)
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center of osteon of compact bone
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concentric lamellae
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concentric rings of osseous connective tissue that surround the central canal
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osteocytes
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mature bone cells
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lacunae
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cavities which house osteocytes
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canaliculi
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connect neighboring lacunae. allow nutrients, minerals, gases and wastes to travel btwn the central canal and osteocytes
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perforating canals
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connect blood and nerve supply to central canal of compact bone
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trabeculae (spongy bone)
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main structural and functional component. form crisscrossing bars and plates for strength
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intramembranous ossification
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bone growth within a membrane (mesenchyme). forms flat bones of the skull, some facial bones, mandible, and clavicle
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endochondral ossification
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bone growth within cartilage. turns fetal framework of hyaline cartilage into bone. formation of most bones. primary ossification center in diaphsis, secondary ossification center in epiphysis
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interstitial growth
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longer bones
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appositional growth
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thicker bones
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osteomalacia
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soft bones, leads to bowed legs. vitamin D deficiency. calcium deficiency.
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osteoporosis
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excessive bone resorption. aged and post-menopause
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osteitis deformans
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excessive osteoclast and osteoblast function. bone is unstable and immature. most common in os coxa, skull, vertebrae, femur, tibia
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axial skeleton
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forms long central axis of body. consists of skull, vertebral column and thorax
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appendicular skeleton
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bones of the appendages. consists of limb bones and their girdles
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nucleus pulposus
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gelatinous, high water content. enables spine to absorb compressive stress.
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annulus fibrosus (intervertebral discs)
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outer rings, ligament. inner rings, fibrocartilage. limits expansion of nucleus pulposus.
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herniated disc
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rupture of annulus fibrosus, follwed by protusion of nucleus pulposus. cases pain and numbness
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cleft lip and cleft palate
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incomplete fusion of facial bones. 1/1000 births
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kyphosis
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hunchback (of notre dame!)
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lordosis
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swayback
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scoliosis
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most common spine curvature deformity
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thalidomide
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was a sleep aid in 50s. affects limb formation during weeks 4-8
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polydactyly
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extra digits
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meromelia
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partial absence of a limb
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phocomelia
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short, poorly formed limb, fin-like
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amelia
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complete absence of a limb
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sarcomere
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functional unit
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A band
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dark band
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H zone
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only thick filaments
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M line
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thick filaments attach
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I band
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only thin filaments
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Z disc
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thin filaments attach
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mobility vs stability
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strength is inversely proportional to mobility
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synarthrosis
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immovable joints
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amphiarthrosis
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slightly movable joints
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diarthrosis
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freely movable joints
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cardiac muscle
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myocardium of heart. fiberse are y shaped or branched. striated. involuntary. intercalated discs. auto-rhythmic.
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smooth muscle
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found in the walls of visceral organs. fusiform shape. uninucleate. no striations. involuntary. fatigue resistant.
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skeletal muscle
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made of cylindrical muscle cells. multinucleate. striated. voluntary. contains myoglobin. innervated. vascular.
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endomysium
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surrounds each muscle fiber. areolar and reticular fibers
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perimysium
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surrounds groups of muscle fibers (fascicles). dense irregular CT
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epimysium
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surrounds whole muscle. dense irregular CT
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deep fascia
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surrounds muscle groups. dense irregular CT
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tendons
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attach muscle to bones, skin, cartilage. aponeurosis=flat tendon. origin=less moveable. insertion=more moveable
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myofibrils
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found inside of muscle fibers. shorten during muscle contraction. long row of repeating segments - sarcomeres. composed of myofilaments.
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myofilaments
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composed of thin and thick filaments. thin: actin, troponin and tropomyosin. thick: myosin
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the nervous system
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body's primary communication and control system
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CNS
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brain and spinal cord
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PNS
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cranial nerves, spinal nerves, ganglia
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sensory
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afferent
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motor
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efferent
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