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338 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the building variables?
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Fire protection systems Occupancy type Fuel Load Type of construction Configuration Buildings' access and exposure |
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Genrtification
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Process of restoring rundown or deteriorated properties by more affluent people, often displacing poorer residents. |
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What is the first defense of a building?
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An automatic fire protection system. |
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What often affects the ways in which building components behave under fire conditions? |
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Fuel loading |
Amount of fuel present expressed quantitatively in terms of weight of fuel per unit area. This may be available fuel (consumable fuel) or total fuel and is usually dry weight.
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What are the traditional construction classifications?
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Noncombustible Masonry or Ordinary Heavy Timber Wood Frame |
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What are the contemporary building codes?
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Type II - Protected Noncombustible or Noncombustible Type III - Exterior Protected Type IV - Heavy Timber Type V - Wood Frame |
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Configuration |
A building's general shape or layout. |
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Exposure |
Structure or separate part of the fireground to which the fire could spread. |
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Conflagration
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Large, uncontrollable fire covering a considerable area and crossing natural fire barrier such as streets; usually involves buildings in more than one block and causes a large fire loss. Forest fires can also be considered conflagrations. |
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Setback |
Distance from the street to the front of a building. |
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Wildland/Urban Interface
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Line, area, or zone where structures and other human development meet or intermingle with undeveloped wildland or vegetative fuels. |
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Convection
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Transfer of heat by the movement of heated fluids or gases, usually in an upward direction. |
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Thermal Radiation
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The transmission or transfer of heat energy from one body to another body at a lower temperature through intervening space by electromagnetic waves similar to radio waves of X-rays. |
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What are the 3 levels of exposure based on the potential severity of the exposing fire? |
Moderate Severe |
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Methods of protect buildings from exposing fires |
Fire suppression systems such as water-based sprinkler systems and fire-retardant distribution systems. Blank walls of noncombustible construction Self-supporting barrier walls between the fir.e building and the exposure. Parapets on exterior masonry walls. Automatic outside deluge systems. Elimination of openings in exterior walls. Glass block panels in openings. Wired glass in steel sash windows. Automatic fire shutters or dampers on wall openings. Automatic fire doors on door openings. |
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To the engineer, failure is said to occur _______.
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when a structure or part is no longer capable of performing its required function in a satisfactory manner.
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To the firefighter, building failure usually means _________.
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structural collapse. |
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Potential sources of building failure under fire conditions can include some or all of the following:
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Building systems Design deficiencies |
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What is the structural integrity of a building related to?
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The fire resistance and combustibility of the material of which it is constructed. |
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What has the ability to maintain structural integrity?
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Fire-resistive materials.
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What are specific building systems?
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Heating Ventilation Air conditioning (HVAC) Electrical power Communications Plumbing Transportation (elevators and conveyors) |
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Design Deficiencies |
A failure to provide a level of fire safety appropriate to the ultimate use of the building. |
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Spec Building
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Building built without a tenant or occupant.
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Factors that a designer has to considers in reaching a satisfactory result.
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Fiscal resources (cost) Building use Aesthetic tastes Building codes Safety Accessibility Climate Infrastructure Soil conditions The physical laws of engineering The owner's needs and desires |
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The overall design of a building is determined by___________.
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available funds. |
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Aesthetics |
Branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty, art, and taste. |
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Building code |
Body of local law, adopted by states, counties, cities, or other governmental bodies to regulate the construction renovation, and maintenance of buildings. |
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Before a building permit is issued, __________________________________. |
the proposed design must meet the provisions of the local building code. |
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What determines, by law, the kinds of buildings in which the firefighter must ultimately fight fires? |
The building code. |
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What is the most widely used model building code used in the US? |
The International Building Code. |
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Specific fire safety provisions include requirements for what elements?
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Flammability of interior finishes. Adequacy of means of egress. Enclosure of vertical openings. Fire protections systems. Exposure protection. Occupancy separation. |
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Occupant safety must be considered in what areas?
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Balcony railings. Overhead obstacles. Electrical wiring. Elevator operation. |
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What impairments qualify as disabilities under the Americans With Disabilities Act? |
Hearing impairments Learning. Speech. Neuromuscular impairments. Mental illness. |
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What are some of the specific building elements that must be designed to accommodate individuals with restricted abilities? |
Parking and passenger loading zones. Elevators. Drinking fountains. Toilet facilities. Alarms Telephones. ATM's Means of egress. |
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Area of refuge
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Space in the normal means of egress protected from fire by an approved sprinkler system, by means of separation from other spaces within the same building by smokeproof walls, or by virtue of location in an adjacent building. |
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Green design
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Term used to describe the incorporation of such environmental principles as energy efficiency and environmentally friendly building materials into design and construction. |
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What are soil properties affected by?
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Water content Seismic shock Organic decomposition Disturbance during construction |
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When does the design and construction process begin? |
When either the developer or the owner perceives a need. |
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What is a "design-build" project? |
When the owner contracts with a single firm to undertake both the design and construction of a building. |
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What are the major technical specialties in a building's design? |
Structural engineering. Mechanical engineering. Electrical engineering. Fire protection engineering. |
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What are the functions of civil engineering? |
Sanitary sewers. Surveying. Site preparation and excavation. Storm water damage. |
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What are the functions of structural engineering? |
Foundation design. Structural behavior. Structural members. Structural erection. |
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What are the functions of mechanical engineering? |
Pumping systems. Elevators. Plumbing system. |
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What are the functions of electrical engineering? |
Power. Communications. |
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What are the functions of fire protection engineering? |
Standpipes. Fire alarm. Smoke control. Code compliance. |
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Board of Appeals |
Group of people, usually five to seven, with experience in fire prevention, building construction, and/or code enforcement legally constituted to arbitrate differences of opinion between fire inspectors and building officials, property owners, occupants, or builders. |
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What are 7 examples of structural problems caused by remodeling without regard to proper methods?
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Modification of beams or trusses. Structural overloading of roofs. Creation of mezzanine floors in attic spaces. Rooftop additions. Remodeling that creates additional voids, such as suspended ceilings. Illegal remodeling or overloading that poses extreme hazards. |
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What is "fast-tracking." |
When the design and construction phases overlap. |
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What is the primary role of the fire inspector? |
The fire inspector is to witness system tests, not perform them. |
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Preincident planning
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Act of preparing to handle an incident at a particular location or a particular type of incident before an incident occurs. |
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How can tactical firefighters develop knowledge of building construction? |
Good for large structures. Through preincident planning. Geographic information systems (GIS). |
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What information about a building's construction is important? |
Location of fire walls. Vertical openings. Roof construction. Exits. Smoke Control systems. |
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What is the most significant characteristic of a building to a firefighter? |
How it behaves under fire conditions. |
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What are the two attributes of building construction? |
Combustibility. |
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What does fire resistance determine?
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The likelihood of structural collapse under fire conditions. |
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What does the combustible nature of a building's structural system impact? |
The rate of fire growth. |
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Fire resistance rating |
Rating assigned to a material or an assembly after standardized testing by an independent testing organization that identifies the amount of time a material or assembly of materials will resist a typical fire as measured on a standard time-temperature curve. |
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What is fire resistance? |
The ability of a structural assembly to maintain its load-bearing capacity and structural integrity under fire conditions. |
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How are fire resistance ratings expressed?
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In hours and fractions of hours. |
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What structural elements will building codes of requirements for? |
Columns Walls and partitions Floor and ceiling assemblies Roof and ceiling assemblies |
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What are the 3 means by which the fire resistance of structural assemblies can be determined?
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Performing analytical calculations to determine the resistance to a standard fire test exposure. Employing analytical structural fire engineering design methods based on real fire exposure characteristics. |
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What is the most commonly used method of determining fire resistance? |
Laboratory test. |
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What is widely used in fire protection to establish the required performance standards in building codes?
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The standard fire-resistance test. |
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How long does a fire-resistance test last? |
Until the specimen fails or the specified fire endurance for which the specimen being tested is reached. |
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What are the 4 primary points of failure for a fire resistance test? |
Temperature increase on the unexposed side of wall, floor, and roof assemblies of 250 degrees above ambient temperatures. Passage of heat or flame through the assembly sufficient to ignite cotton waste. Excess temperature on steel members. |
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Underwriters Laboratories (UL)
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Equipment and materials are approved only for the specific use for which it is tested. |
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What are the standard intervals for test specimens?
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15 Minutes 30 Minutes 45 Minutes 1 Hour 1.5 Hours 2 Hours 3 Hours 4 Hours |
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Which test is the only method universally accepted by building codes?
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The E-119 Test.
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Fire stop |
Solid materials, such as wood blocks, used to prevent or limit the vertical and horizontal spread of fire and the products of combustions in hollow walls or floors, above false ceilings in penetrations for plumbing or electrical installations, in penetrations of a fire-rated assembly, or in cocklofts and crawl spaces. |
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What information does the standard test not provide?
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Evaluation of the extent to which the assembly may generate smoke, toxic, gases, or other products of combustion. Measurement of the degree of control or limitation of the passage of smoke or products of combustion. Fire behavior of joints between building elements such as floor-to-wall or wall-to-wall connections. Measurement of flame spread over the surface of the tested material. The effect on fire endurance of openings in an assembly such as electrical outlets and plumbing openings unless specifically provided for in the construction tested. |
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Why may penetrations of fire-resistive assemblies be made?
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Plumbling. Electrical. Communication. |
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Fire Resistance Directory |
Published by Underwriters Laboratories. |
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Which test is the most commonly used method of satisfying building code requirements for structural fire resistance? |
The NFPA 251 Standard time-temperature test. |
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Noncombustable
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Also, material that "in the form in which used and under the conditions anticipated, will not ignite, burn, support combustion, or release flammable vapors, when subjected to fire or heat. |
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What is the most commonly used test for determining combustibility?
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ASTM E 136.
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What are the 5 major classifications of buildings?
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Type II - Noncombustible or protected noncombustible. Type III - Exterior protected (masonry). Type IV - Heavy Timber. Type V - Wood Frame. |
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Masonry
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Bricks, blocks, stones, and unreinforced concrete products. |
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Which is the only major classification not further divided into 2-3 subclassifications? |
Type IV - Heavy Timber. |
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Which NFPA standard details the requirements for each of the classifications and subclassifications?
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NFPA 220. |
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What do the digits means in NFPA 220? |
The second digit refers to the fire-resistance rating of structural frames or columns and girders that support loads of more than one floor. The third digit indicates the fire-resistance rating of the floor construction. |
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What type of construction has the highest requirements for fire resistance?
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Type I - Fire-resistive. |
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Type I - Fire-resistive construction |
The structural members are of non-combustible construction that has a specified fire resistance. |
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What are the fire resistance times of Type I construction?
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Floors - 2-3 hours. Roof deck and support - 1-2 hours. Interior partitions enclosing stairwells and corridors - 1-2 hours. |
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In Type I construction, what can combustible materials can be used for? |
Interior floor finishes. Interior wall finishes and trims. Doors and door frames. Window sashes and frames. Platforms. Nailing and furring strips. Light-transmitting plastics. Foam plastics subject to restrictions. |
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What provides the fuel for a fire in most Type I structures?
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Contents. |
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What are the two most common methods of constructing Type I buildings? |
Reinforced concrete or a protected steel frame. |
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Reinforced concrete properties |
Concrete in an inherently noncombustible material with good thermal insulating properties. Fundamentally fire-resistive. Can fail if subjected to a very intense fire of long duration. Can also be damaged by an explosion. |
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Steel-frame building properties
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Unprotected steel has no fire resistance. Must be protected by an insulating material. Structural strength of steel combined with insulating material produce a fire-resistive structural assembly. |
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Type II - Noncombustible
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Unprotected Type II construction
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Unprotected steel is the most common characteristic. |
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Protected noncombustible construction |
When structural steels is provided with a degree of fire resistance that is less than required for Type I construction. |
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What other materials can be used in Type II construction? |
Glass and aluminum - structural role is limited. |
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What does the point at which unprotected members will fail in Type II construction depend on?
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Size of the unprotected steel members. Intensity and duration of the exposing fire. |
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Type III construction has been commonly referred to as _________________________.
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Ordinary construction.
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What are the two subclassifications of Type III construction? |
Type III A - required to have a one-hour fire-resistive rating for interior members. Type III B - has no fire resistance requirements for the interior members. |
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What is a fundamental concern with Type III construction? |
The combustible concealed spaces that are created between floor and ceiling joists and between studs in partition walls when they are covered with interior finish materials. These spaces provide combustible paths for the communication of fire through a building. The concealed spaces in Type III construction must be properly firestopped. |
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Type IV construction is otherwise known as? |
Heavy-timber or "mill" construction. |
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In Type IV construction the exterior walls are made of _____________ construction and the interior structural walls are ________________. |
masonry/combustible. |
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What are two important distinctions between Type III and Type IV construction? |
In Type IV construction the beams, columns, floors ,a droofs are made of solid or laminated wood with dimensions greater than in Type III construction. Concealed spaces are not permitted between structural members in Type IV construction. |
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What is the primary hazard in Type IV construction? |
The massive amount of fuel presented by the large structural members in addition to the building contents. |
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Type V construction is also known as? |
Wood-frame construction. |
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What is the basic method of construction in a Type V building? |
Using a wood frame to provide the primary structural support. |
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Type V structures are required to have a ________ fire resistance for the structure. |
1 hour. |
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How is the fire resistance rating for a Type V building accomplished? |
By protecting the combustible frame members with plaster or fire-rated gypsum board. |
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Light-frame construction |
Method for construction of wood-frame buildings. Replaced the use of heavy timber wood framing. |
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What is a fundamental problem posed by Type V construction? |
The creation of combustible concealed voids and channels more extensive than are found in Type III construction. These concealed spaces provide avenues for extension of fire within a building. |
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Fire load/Fuel load |
The amount of fuel within s compartment expressed in pounds per square foot obtained by dividing the amount of fuel present by the floor area. Fire load is used as a measure of the potential heat release of a fire within a compartment. |
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What is the heats of combustion of ordinary combustibles? |
Between 7,000 and 8,00 BTU per pound. |
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Which types of buildings have an inherently greater fire load? |
Types III, IV, and V. |
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IBC Classifications |
Assembly - Group A Business - Group B Educational - Group E Factories - Group F High Hazard - Group H Institutional - Group I Mercantile - Group F Residential - Group R Storage - Group S Utility and Miscellaneous - Group U |
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IBC Classifications - Residential subgroups (4) |
R-1 - Occupancies with primarily transient occupants including hotels and motels. R-2 - Occupancies with primarily permanent occupants and more than two dwelling units, such as apartment buildings, dormatories, and nontransient hotels. R-3 - Occupancies with primarily permanent occupants and not more than two dwelling units. R-4 - Occupancies used as assisted-living facilities with five to 16 occupants. |
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IBC Classifications - Assembly subgroups (5) |
A-1 - Assembly occupancies, usually with fixed seating such as motion picture theaters and concert halls. A-2 - Assembly occupancies used for consuming food and drink such as night clubs and restaurants. A-3 - Assembly occupancies used for worship, recreation ,or amusement such as bowling alleys, churches, dance hall, and exhibition halls. A-4 - Assembly occupancies intended for viewing indoor sporting events such as tennis courts and arenas. A-5 - Assembly uses for outdoor activities such as bleachers, grandstands, and stadiums. |
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12 NFPA Classifciations |
Assembly. Educational. Day care. Health care. Ambulatory health care. Detention and correctional. Residential. Residential board and care. Mercantile. Business. Industrial. Storage. |
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What must the engineer do first in order to design an adequate structure? |
First determine the type and magnitude of the forces to which the structure will be subjected. |
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What is the most critical aspect of engineering design? |
To determine the type and magnitude of the forces to which the structure will be subjected. |
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Load |
Any effect the a structure must be designed to resist. Forces of loads, such as gravity, wind, earthquakes, and soil pressure are exerted on a building. |
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Gravity |
Force acting to draw an object toward the earth's center. Force is equal to the object's weight. |
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Kinetic energy |
The energy possessed by a moving object. |
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What forces does wind exert on a building? |
Direct pressure. Aerodynamic drag. Negative pressure. |
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Direct pressure |
The impact effect the wind has on a surface. This force may be reduced by streamlining the surface encountered. |
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Aerodynamic drag |
When wind encounters an object, its fluid nature causes it to flow around the object. This exerts a drag effect on the object. |
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Negative pressure |
A suction effect produced on the downward side of the building resulting in an outward pressure. |
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What are the secondary effects that may be produced on a building by wind? |
Rocking effects. Vibration. Clean-off effect. |
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Rocking effects |
A back-and-forth effect due to variations in the velocity of the wind. |
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Vibration |
Wind passing over a surface such as a rood may cause vibration of the surface depending on the velocity of the wind and the harmonic characteristics of the surface. |
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Clean-off effect |
The tendency of wind to dislodge objects from a building. |
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Seismic forces |
Forces developed by earthquakes. Seismic forces are some of the most complex forces exerted on a building. |
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What do earthquakes occur as a result of? |
Slippage between the tectonic plates that make up the earth's surface. The movement of the plates produces vibrations at the earth's surface, usually along a fault line. |
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The magnitude of the forces developed within a building during an earthquake depends what 5 factors? |
Magnitude of the vibratory motion. Type of foundation. Nature of the soil under the building. Stiffness of the structure. Presence of damping mechanisms within the building. |
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Inertia |
The tendency of a body to remain in motion or at rest until it is acted upon by force. |
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Soil liquefaction |
Occurs when the soil is of a loose, sandy nature, and is saturated with water. Frequently occur in low-lying land near bodies of water. |
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Which is the most significant force in ground motion? |
Horizontal. |
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Buildings with ______________ are inherently more susceptible to damage from earthquakes than buildings having a ___________ design. |
geometric irregularities/symmetrical. |
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What are examples of buildings that are designed to handle greater seismic load? |
Large places of public assembly. Large office buildings. Schools. Institutions. Fire and police stations. Hospitals. Communication centers. emergency preparedness centers. Generating stations. |
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What are 4 methods used to protect buildings against the forces of earthquakes? |
Increasing a building's stiffness through the use of shear walls and cross bracing. Use continuous structures with a high degree of redundancy in their structural frames. Use buildings with damping mechanisms. Base isolation. |
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Damping mechanism |
Structural element designed to control vibration.
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Base isolation |
The concept is to isolate the building from the horizontal movement of the earth's surface. |
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Elastomeric bearings |
Create a layer between the building and the foundations, which has a low horizontal stiffness. |
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Sliding systems |
Make use of special plates sliding on each other. These systems isolate the building from the horizontal shear force created by an earthquake. |
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Soil exerts a ____________ pressure against the foundation. |
horizontal. |
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Active soil pressure |
The pressure exerted by the soil against the foundation. |
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Passive soil pressure. |
The force of the foundation against the soil . |
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Equation used to determine soil pressure |
p=Cwh p - pressure. h- depth of soil. w - density of soil. C - numerical constant that depends on the physical properties of the soil. |
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Equation used to determine static pressure. |
p = Cv(2) p - static pressure. v - velocity C - .00256 a numerical constant that accounts for the air mass and simplifying assumptions of building behavior. |
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Temperature as a building force |
As it changes, the structural members at the periphery of the building expand and contract. The differing rates of expansion and contraction between the structural members cause the members to exert forces on each other. |
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Vibration as a building force |
Can arise from sources within a building such as rotating machinery. Can arise from blower motors from inside the building. Can arise from sources outside the building such as the passing of a freight train. |
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Shrinkage as a building force |
Can occur in wood structural members as the lumber dries over time. This can result in tensile forces at connections between the members. |
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Dead load |
Weight of the structure, structural members, building components, and any other feature permanently attached to the building that is constant and immobile. Load on a structure due to its own weight and other fixed weights. |
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What are the two forces on a building resulting from gravity? |
Dead loads. Live loads. |
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Live load |
Force placed upon a structure by the addition of people, objects, or weather. |
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Concentrated load |
Load that is applied at one pint or over a small area. |
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Uniformly distributed load |
Loads applied over a large area. |
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Static Loads |
Loads that are steady, motionless, constant, or applied gradually. |
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Dynamic Load or Shock Loading |
Loads that involve motion. They include the forces arising from wind, moving vehicles, earthquakes, vibration, falling objects, as well as the addition of a moving load force to an aerial device or structure. |
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What is the basic equation for kinetic energy? |
E=1/2mv (squared) m - mass of an object. v - velocity. E - kinetic energy. |
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Equilibrium |
Condition in which the support provided by a structural system is equal to the applied loads. |
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Reactions |
The forces that resist the applied loads. |
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Cantilever |
Projecting beam or slab supported at one end. |
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Tension |
Those vertical or horizontal forces that tend to pull things apart. For example, the force exerted on the bottom chord of a truss. |
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What are the 3 interior forces? |
Tension. Compression. Shear. |
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Compression |
Tends to squeeze the material. |
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Shear |
Tends to slide on plane of a material past an adjacent plane. |
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Concrete has good ________________ strength, but little ____________ strength |
compressive/tensile. |
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Stress |
The magnitude of the interior forces that occur in structural members. A measurement of force intensity. |
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Failure point |
Point at which material ceases to perform satisfactorily. Depending on the application this can be breaking, permanent deformation, excessive deflection or vibration. |
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Axial Load |
Load applied to the center of the cross-section of a member and perpendicular to that cross section. It can be either tensile or compressive and creates uniform stressed across the cross-section of the material. |
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What are the 3 exterior loads? |
Axial. Eccentric. Torsional. |
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Eccentric Load |
Load perpendicular to the cross section of the structural member but does not pass through the center of the cross section. Creates stressed that vary across the cross-section and may be both tensile and compressive. |
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Torsional Load
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Load offset from the center of the cross section of the member and at an angle to or in the same plane as the cross section. Produces a twisting effect that creates shear stressed in a material. |
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What are some of the basic components of larger structural systems? |
Beams. Columns. Arches. Cables. Trusses. Space frames. Connectors. |
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Beam |
Structural member subjected to loads, usually vertical, perpendicular to its length. |
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Simply supported beam |
Supported at each end and is free to rotate at the ends. Example - a wood joist resting on a masonry wall. |
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Cantilever beam |
Supported at one end. Often used to support balconies. |
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Restrained beams |
Rigidly supported at each end. Under fire conditions, it will tend to retain its load-bearing ability longer than a simply supported beam. |
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What 3 things are beams made of? |
Wood. Steel. Reinforced concrete. |
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What is the primary design consideration of beams? |
Their ability to resist bending from applied loads. |
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Column |
Vertical supporting member. Designed to support and axial compressive load. |
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What are columns made of? |
Wood. Steel. Cast iron. Concrete. Masonry. |
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Arch |
A curved structural member in which the interior stresses are primarily compressive. Used to carry loads across a distance. |
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What are arches made of? |
Masonry. Steel. Concrete. Laminated wood. |
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Cables |
Flexible structural members that can be used to support roofs, brace tents, and restrain pneumatic structures. |
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A cable used to support loads over a distance will assume the shape of what? |
A parabola. |
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What are the stresses in a cable? |
Tension stresses. |
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What are cables made of? |
Steel strands, although aluminum may be used where weight is a critical factor. |
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Truss |
Structural member used to form a roof or floor framework. These form triangles or combinations of triangles to provide maximum load-bearing capacity with a minimum amount rendered dangerous by exposure to dangerous heat, which weakens gusset plate attachment. |
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A true truss is only made of _______________. |
Straight members. |
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If loads are applied only at the point of intersection of the truss members, only _________________ stresses will affect the members of the truss. |
Compressive or tensile. |
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Top chords |
The top members of a truss. |
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Bottom chords |
The bottom members of a truss. |
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Diagonals or web members |
The diagonal members of a truss. |
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What are trusses made of? |
Wood. Steel. A combination of wood and steel. |
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Truss joints |
Lightweight wood or metal trusses. |
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Bar joists |
Lightweight steel trusses. Also used for floor and roof construction in fire-resistive and non-combustible construction. |
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Space frames |
Truss structures that are developed in three dimension. Well suited to support uniformly distributed loads. |
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Wood truss members are connected by what 5 things? |
Pins or bolts. Gusset plates. Adhesives. Brackets. Metal straps. |
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Steel truss members are connected by what 3 things? |
Steel gusset plates. Rivets. Welds. |
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Bearing wall |
Wall that supports itself and the weight of the roof and/or other internal structural framing components such as the floor beams above it. |
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In a bearing wall structure, the walls are subjected to __________________loads. |
Compressive. |
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What are 4 examples of materials used in bearing walls? |
Concrete masonry units (CMUs or concrete blocks). Bricks. Stone. Concrete panels. |
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Frame structural system |
Support is provided in a manner similar to the way a skeleton supports the human body. The walls act as the "skin" to enclose the frame. The walls provide no structural support. |
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What are 6 types of frame structural systems? |
Wood-frame. Steel stud wall framing. Post and beam construction. Rigid frame. Truss frames. Slab and column frames. |
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Steel stud wall framing |
Uses relatively closely spaced vertical steel studs connected by top and bottom horizontal members. Frequently provided with diagonal bracing for stability. |
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Post and beam construction |
Uses a series of vertical elements to support horizontal elements. |
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What is the distinctive characteristic of post and beam framing? |
The spacing of the vertical posts and the cross-sectional dimension of the members. |
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Rigid frames |
When the joints between a column and a beam are reinforced so bending stresses can be transmitted through the joints. |
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Slab and column frames |
The most frequently encountered in concrete structures. |
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Surface system |
System of construction in which the building consists primarily of an enclosing surface and in which the stresses resulting from the applied loads occur within the surface bearing wall structures. |
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Membrane structure |
Structure with an enclosing surface of a thin stretched flexible material. examples include a simple tent or an air-supported structure. |
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A membrane "structure" can be distinguished from a simple tent by its _________________. |
Permanence. |
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Building codes typically address membrane structures with a life of _____________ or more. |
180 days. |
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What are the 3 advantages of membrane structures? |
Fabrics used on the roofs weigh less than other roof systems. Can be erected in less time than a rigid structural system. The fabric used and flex and absorb some of the stresses caused by seismic and wind forces. |
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Shell structures |
Rigid, three-dimensional structure having an outer "skin" thickness that is small compared to other dimensions. |
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What structures lend themselves to other geometric shapes such as cones, domes, barrel vaults, and folded planes? |
Shell structures. |
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Means of egress |
Safe, continuous path of travel from any point in a structure to a public way. |
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What are the 3 parts of a means of egress? |
The exit access. The exit. The exit discharge. |
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Convenience stair |
Stair that usually connects two floors in a multistory building. |
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Rise |
Vertical distance between the treads of a stairway or the height of the entire stairway. |
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Run |
The horizontal measurement of a stair tread or the distance of the entire stair length. |
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What are the two roles of stairs? |
They enable occupants to access various levels of the structure. They serve as a basic component of building egress during an emergency. |
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What are the 6 basic types of stairs? |
Straight-run stairs. Return stairs. Scissor stairs. Circular stairs. Folding stairs. Spiral stairs. |
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Straight-run stairs
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Landings may be found, breaking up the stairs' vertical travel at intervals specified by codes. |
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Return stairs |
Have an intermediate landing between floors and reverse direction at that point. May have more than one landing where the height is greater than normal. Common in modern construction. |
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Scissor stairs |
Each set serves every floor, but on alternately opposite sides of the stair shaft. For example, one set would serve the west wing on even-numbered floors and the east-wing odd numbered floors, while the other set would serve floors opposite to the first set. |
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Circular stairs
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Often found as grand stairs or convenience stairs serving only two levels.
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Folding stairs |
Most often located in a hallway. |
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Spiral stairs |
Consist of series of steps spiraling around a single column. |
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Protected Stair Enclosure |
Intended to protect occupants as they make their way through the stair enclosure. |
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What are the only penetrations permitted in a protected stair enclosure? |
Fire protection. Environmental control. |
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Exterior stairs |
Stairs that are exterior to the building and are open to the air. Naturally ventilated but may be partially enclosed from the weather. |
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Fire Escape |
Traditional term for an exterior stair, frequently incorporating a movable section, usually of noncombustible construction that is intended as an emergency exit. It is usually supported by hangers installed in the exterior wall of the building. |
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Smokeproof Enclosures |
Stairways that are designed to limit the penetration of smoke, heat, and toxic gases from a fire on a floor of a building into the stairway and that serve as part of a means of egress. |
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What are the two types of smokeproof stair enclosures?
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Passive. |
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Open stairs |
Will likely serve as a path for spread of fire and smoke and will not protect anyone using them from exposure to the products of combustion. Usually only used to connect two adjacent floors above basement level. Also known as convenience stairs. |
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Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA of 1990 - Public Law 101-336 |
A federal statute intended to remove barriers physical and otherwise that limit access by individuals by individuals with disabilities. |
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Most elevator regulations are based on _________________, published by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. |
ASME/ANSI A17.1, Safety Code for Elevators. |
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Elevator |
Can be classified as either passenger or freight. |
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Service elevator
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A passenger elevator that has been designed to carry freight. |
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What are the two most common types of power in elevators?
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Hydraulic. Electric. |
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What is the operating principle of hydraulic elevators?
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As the fluid is pumped in, the ram rises and the attached elevator car moves upward. As the fluid drains out, the car is lowered by gravity. They do not have brakes. |
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What is the practical upper limit for hydraulic elevators? |
6 stories. |
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What kind of electric elevators are there? |
Traction. |
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Safety devices in elevators
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Buffers. Speed-reducing switches. Overspeed switches. Car safeties. |
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Terminal device |
An electric switch designed to stop the car by removing power before it reaches the upper or lower limits of the hoistway.
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Buffers |
Cannot safely stop a free-falling car. Only stop one traveling at its normal rate of speed. |
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Speed-reducing switch |
Slows the drive motor when an elevator starts to exceed a safe speed. If the car continues to accelerate, it applies the car safeties and trips the overspeed switch. |
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Overspeed switch
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Connected to the speed governor. Activated if the speed-reducing switch fails to slow the car sufficiently. |
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Car safeties |
Designed to stop a free-falling car. |
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Mushrooming |
At this point they will spread laterally until they encounter vertical obstructions and begin to bank downward. |
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Elevator hoistway |
The vertical shaft in which the elevator car travels and includes the elevator pit. Required to be constructed of fire-resistive materials. Equipped with fire-rated door assemblies. |
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If a building contains ______________ elevators, the codes permit them to be placed in one hoistway.
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3 or fewer. |
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When ____________ elevators are provided, there must be a minimum of two separate hoistways.
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4 or more. |
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Blind hoistway |
There are no entrances to the shaft on floors between the main entrance and the lowest floor served. |
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What are the doors in elevators called? |
Hoistway doors. |
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Moving stairs or escalators |
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What are the speeds of escalators?
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They are now standardized at 100 feet per minute. |
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Step chain
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The chain that links and moves the steps around an escalator frame. |
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Conveyor systems |
Often pass through fire barriers. Usually protected by either providing a fire door or shutter or by utilizing a water-spray method. |
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Pipe chase
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Those that are not properly protected can be major contributors to the vertical spread of smoke and fire in a building. |
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Utility chase
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A term generally applied to the vertical pathway (shaft) in a building that contains utility services. |
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Types of utility chases
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Plumbing. Electrical raceways. Telecommunications. Data cables. Ductwork for HVAC. |
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Refuse chute
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Usually extending from the basement or ground floor to the top floor of multistory buildings. Provides for the removal of trash and garbage from upper floors of buildings such as residential properties. Required to be constructed of noncombustible material with rated doors. |
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Grease duct |
Installed as part of an exhaust system for commercial cooking appliances that produce grease-laden vapors.
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Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) System
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Also called the Air-Handling system. |
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An HVAC system provides _______________ air to building occupants
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Conditioned. |
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Hydronic systems
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Systems that make use of water as the heat transfer medium. |
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Forced-air systems |
HVAC system that involves the distribution of conditioned air through a building from one or more mechanical equipment rooms.
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Which NFPA is the Standard for the Installation of Air-Conditioning and Ventilation Systems? |
NFPA 90A. |
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What is the advantage in placing a HVAC equipment room on the top floor? |
It is easy to take in makeup air and eject exhaust air to the atmosphere. |
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What are the system components of HVAC systems? |
Fans. Air Filtration. Air Heating and Cooling Equipment. Air Ducts. |
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Duct |
Hollow pathways used to move air from one area to another in ventilation systems. The distribution component of the HVAC system. |
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Interstitial Space |
May be large enough to provide a potential space for fire to spread unseen to other parts of the building. |
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Smoke-Control system |
Engineered system designed to control smoke by using mechanical fans to produce airflows and pressure differences across smoke barriers to limit and direct smoke movement. |
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Advantages of an automatic smoke control system
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Activated during nighttime hours. |
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Disadvantage of automatic smoke control system
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If designed improperly, they may not work correctly. |
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Advantages to manual smoke control system
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More specific system control. |
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Disadvantage to manual smoke control system |
Slower than automatic system. |
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What are two-methods used to protect and enclosed stairwell?
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To provide for stairwell pressurization. |
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Smoke-proof tower |
A type of smoke-proof enclosure that makes use of a vestibule between the corridor and the stairwell that is open to the atmosphere. |
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Pressurized stairwell |
Utilizes a blower or fan to provide a slightly greater pressure in the stairwell than the corridor to prevent the infiltration of smoke form the corridor into the stairwell. |
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What is one limitation to the effectiveness of pressurized stairwells? |
The loss of pressure than can occur when doors are opened when doors are opened to the stairwell. |
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What are the 2 general design methods used for pressurized stairwells?
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Multiple-injection system - an air supply shaft is run parallel to the stairwell from the supply fan. |
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Curtain boards
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Vertical boards, fire-resistive half-walls, that extend down from the underside of the roof of some commercial buildings and are intended to limit the spread of fire, heat, smoke, and fire gases. |
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Which NFPA contains the design methodology for determining the required vent area? |
NFPA 204, Standard for Smoke and Heat Venting |
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Voltage
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Sometimes called the electromotive force (EMF). Measured in volts (v). |
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Transformers
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Used to convert high-voltage electricity to an appropriate voltage for use in the building. |
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What are the two most common cooling methods transformers use? |
Oil. |
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Dielectric |
Term usually applied to tools that are used to handle energized electrical wires or equipment. |
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Many buildings are now supplied by the electric utility with __________ services. |
480/277 volt (480 HVAC/277 light fixture). |
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Generator
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Portable ones are powered by small gasoline or diesel engines and generally have 110 and or 220 volt capacities. |
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What is the most common type of generator?
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Diesel fuel engine.
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Where are generators often located?
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In an open parking garage. Outside the building. |
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What do lead acid batteries contain? |
Lead. |
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What are 6 other names for lead-acid batteries? |
Gel cell. Starved electrolyte cell. Sealed cell. Maintenance free cell. Flooded cell. |
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How can the combustibility of interior finish affect the behavior of fire? |
It affects the rate of fire growth (which can lead to flashover). It adds to the intensity of a fire because it contributes fuel. It can produce smoke and toxic gases that contribute to the life hazard. |
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Interior finish |
Commonly refers to finish on walls and ceilings and not floor coverings. |
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What are some examples of interior finishes?
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Gypsum wallboard. Wood paneling. Ceiling tiles. Plastic. Fiberboard. Other wall coverings. |
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Surface burning charactersitics
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The degree to which fire can spread over the surface of a material. |
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What factors influence the speed of flame spread over an interior finish? |
Ventilation. The shape of the space in which the material is installed. Whether the finish material is applied to the ceiling or wall. |
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What are the classifications of interior finishes? |
Class B material (26-75) - required in corridor that provide exit access. Class C material (76-200) - required in other rooms and space depending on the occupancy. |
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What is the maximum flame spread rating? |
200.
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Heat Release Rate (HRR)
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Total amount of heat produced or released to the atmosphere from the convective-lift fire phase of a fire per unit mass of fuel consumed per unit time. |
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Flame Spread Rating
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Numerical rating assigned to a material based on the speed and extent to which flame travels over its surface. |
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Steiner Tunnel Test
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Unofficial name for the test used to determine the flame spread ratings of various materials. |
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Assembly |
All component or manufactured parts necessary for and fitted together to form a complete machine, structure, unit or system. |
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What is the most significant factor that determines the rate at which a fuel burns? |
The combination of the fuel and available oxygen. |
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What is the most commonly used method for evaluating the surface burning characteristics of materials?
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The Steiner Tunnel Test. |
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What is the Steiner Tunnel Test more formally known as?
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NFPA 255. |
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How do you derive the numerical fire spread rating?
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Asbestos cement board - rating 0 Red Oak flooring - rating 100. |
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Toxicity
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Ability of a substance to do harm within the body. |
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Volatility
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Ability of a substance to vaporize easily at a relatively low temperature. |
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The smoke developed rating |
Does not indicate the toxicity or volatility of the material. |
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Fire retardant
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Any substance, expect plain water, that is applied to another material or substance to reduce the flammability of fuels or slow their rate of combustion by chemical or physical action. |
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What are 4 types of fire-retardant coatings? |
Mastics. Gas-forming paints. Cementitious and mineral fiber coatings. |
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Fire Retardant coatings
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They cannot be substituted for structural fireproofing. |
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Some materials will produce a fire hazard greater than indicated by the tunnel test when they are installed in an environment that approximates a real room. What are two reasons for this increased hazard? |
The walls and ceiling of a room provide for re-radiation of heat between the intersecting surfaces. |
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Corner test
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Test procedures that incorporates the size and shape of real rooms. |
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NFPA 265 - Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Evaluating Room Fire Growth Contribution of Textile Coverings on Full Height Panels and Walls |
A large-scale test for evaluating the fire performance of textile wall coverings. |
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NFPA 286 - Fire Tests for Evaluating Contribution of Wall and Ceiling Interior Finish to Room Fire Growth |
Test developed to handle materials that may not remain in place during the tunnel test, such as plastic materials that may melt and drip.
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Active fire protection
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Consists of equipment such as an automatic sprinkler system or fire alarm system that requires a power source for operation.
The power source may be manual. |
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Passive fire protection |
Relies on building construction and materials to contain fire or products of combustion.
Examples - fire walls, stair enclosures, fire partitions, enclosures and shaft walls, and fire doors. |
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Compartmentation systems |
Series of barriers designed to keep flames, smoke, and heat from spreading from one room or floor to another. Barriers may be doors, extra walls, or partitions, fire-stopping materials inside walls or other concealed spaces, or floors. The subdivision of a building or the floor levels of a building. |
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Rated assembly |
Assemblies of building components such as doors, walls, roofs, and other structural features that may be, because of the occupancy, required by code to have a minimum fire-resistance rating from an independent testing agency. Also called Labeled Assembly. |
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Shelter in Place |
Having occupants remaining in a structure or vehicle in order to provide protection from a rapidly approaching hazard (fire, gas cloud, etc.). The opposite of evacuation. |
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Fire Wall |
Fire-rated wall with a specified degree of fire resistance, built of fire-resistive materials and usually extending from the foundation up to and through the roof of a building, that is designed to limit the spread of a fire within a structure or between adjacent structures. Also known as area separation walls. |
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Why are fire walls not popular with designers? |
They increase structural costs and may interfere with the free movement of material through a factory or warehouse. They can also be architecturally unattractive. |
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Fire walls can either be constructed as ___________ or _______________. |
Freestanding walls. Tied walls. |
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Freestanding walls |
Self-supporting and are independent of the building frame. Usually found in Type III or Type IV construction. |
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Tied fire walls |
Erected at a column line in a building of steel-frame or concrete frame construction. |
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Fire partition |
Fire barrier that extends from one floor to the bottom of the floor above or to the underside of a fire-rated ceiling assembly. Provides a lower level of protection than a fire wall. May not extend continuously through the building. Example - a one-hour rated corridor wall. |
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Enclosure walls |
Used to enclose such vertical openings as stairwells, elevator shafts, and pipe chases that extend from floor to floor in buildings. The purpose is to block the vertical spread of fire through a building and, in the case of stairwells, to protect a means of egress. Usually non-load bearing. |
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Glazing |
Glass or thermoplastic panel in a window that allows light to pass. |
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Curtain wall |
Non-bearing exterior wall attached to the outside of a building with a rigid steel frame. Usually the front exterior wall of a building intended to provide a certain appearance. |
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Fire stop |
Solid materials, such as wood blocks, used to prevent or limit the vertical and horizontal spread of fire and the products of combustion in hollow walls or floors, above false ceilings, in penetration for plumbing, or electrical installations, in penetrations of a fire-rated assembly, or in cocklofts, and crawl spaces. |
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Fire door |
A specially constructed, tested, and approved fire-rated door assembly designed to prevent fire spread by automatically closing and covering a doorway in a fire wall during a fire to block the spread of fire through the door opening. |
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Letter designations for fire doors (only used in existing buildings, not new construction) |
Class A - Openings in fire walls. Class B - Openings in vertical shafts and openings in 2-hour rated partitions. Class C - Openings between rooms and corridors having a fire resistance of 1 hour or less. Class D - Openings in exterior walls subject to severe fire exposure from the outside of a building. Class E - Openings in exterior walls subject to moderate of light exposure from the outside. |
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What NFPA standard is used to test fire doors? |
NFPA 252, Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Door assemblies. Also - ASTM E-152. |
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Fuire dors |
TBA |
